O presente trabalho apresenta um estudo sobre o amolecimento após laminação e recozimento da AA 7075, uma liga de alumínio endurecível por precipitação . As amostras recebidas no estado T6 foram caracterizadas com auxílio das técnicas de microscopia óptica de luz polarizada, microscopia eletrônica de varredura, espectroscopia de raios X por dispersão de energia, difração de raios X, condutividade elétrica e dureza Vickers . As amostras foram então separadas em dois grupos. O primeiro sofreu um tratamento térmico de solubilização (485°C por 5 horas) enquanto o segundo foi submetido a um tratamento de superenvelhecimento (300°C por 5 horas) e, em seguida, ambos os grupos de amostras tratadas foram novamente caracterizadas pelas técnicas descritas anteriormente (exceto microscopia óptica) e laminadas a frio. Durante a etapa de laminação, constatou-se a dificuldade em causar deformação plástica na amostra solubilizada. Optou-se em conduzir o estudo com as amostras superenvelhecidas, que foram laminadas com reduções de 45%, 75% e 90% em espessura. A seguir, estas foram submetidas a tratamentos isotérmicos e isócronos com o objetivo de estudar a cinética de amolecimento das amostras deformadas a frio. As amostras superenvelhecidas e deformadas em 45% em redução de espessura, apresentaram somente indícios de início de recristalização (nas amostras tratadas a partir de 250°C por 1 hora) via EBSD, sendo que a maior parte do amolecimento pode ser explicada pelo mecanismo de recuperação. Além disso, a cinética de amolecimento das amostras recozidas nesse grupo apresentaram boa concordância com a lei logarítmica proposta por Kulhmann (1948) e (coincidentemente) também com o consolidado modelo JMAK. As amostras superenvelhecidas e deformadas em 75% e 90% apresentaram comportamento similar (isso é, principalmente recuperação) para recozimentos realizados em temperaturas de até 350°C por uma hora. Recozimentos realizados a 400°C promoveram a recristalização total das amostras desse grupo para tempos inferiores a 15 minutos. Dessa forma, não foi possível estudar a cinética de recristalização para esse segundo grupo de amostras. / This work presents a study about the softening after cold rolling and annealing of aluminium alloy AA 7075. Firstly, polarized light optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, electrical conductivity and Vickers hardness have been used at the starting material (T6). The samples were then separated in two groups. The former underwent a solubilization heat treatment (485°C for 5 hours) whilst the latter underwent an overaging treatment to grow up the existing precipitates (300°C for 5 hours). Both groups of treated samples were again characterized by the techniques described above (except optical microscopy). In the rolling stage, the difficulty in straining the solubilized sample and the relative ease for doing so to the overaged sample was verified. It was therefore decided to conduct the study with the samples of the second group, which were 45%, 75% and 90% rolled in thickness reduction. Then, they underwent isothermal and isochronous treatments in order to study its softening kinetics by Vickers hardness measurements, polarized light optic microscopy and EBSD. The overaged and rolled samples (45% in thickness reduction) didn\'t present evidences of recrystallization except by very few grains found via EBSD (in samples treated from 250 ° C for 1 hour). So, most of the observed softening can be explained by recovery. In addition, the softening kinetics of the annealed samples in this group showed good agreement with the logarithmic law proposed by Kulhmann (1948) and (coincidentally) also with the consolidated JMAK model. The overaged samples that underwent thickness reduction of 75% and 90% showed a similar behavior (that is, mainly recovery) for annealing at temperatures up to 350 ° C. Annealing at 400 ° C promoted total recrystallization of the samples from this group (75% and 90% in thickness reduction) in less than 15 minutes. Thus, it was not possible to study the kinetics of recrystallization for this second group of samples.

No description available.

Introduction of a composition gradient at a join between two materials of different elastic properties should reduce the stress concentrating effect of the interfacial discontinuity. A crack oriented perpendicular to this elasticity gradient will experience mode-mixity, and possible subsequent crack deflection. Explicit analytical solutions for the stress state at the tip of an angled crack in a graded material of a given finite geometry do not exist, and ongoing crack path development in such a gradient has not been characterised. An infiltration processing technique is developed which allows two materials to be joined through a region of graded composition, of tailored width and composition profile. Composition discontinuities at layer interfaces in a stepped gradient can be tolerated due to the resulting interpenetrating network structured (INS) microstructure. Firing stresses were found to be a limitation of the processing technique, overcome by limiting the steepness of the elastic gradient. Alumina and epoxy resin graded composites were produced and tested under monotonic loading, resulting in stable crack path evolution. Stress-field asymmetry at the tip of a crack oriented perpendicular to an elastic gradient was demonstrated, followed by subsequent crack deflection. Stress intensity factor and deflection angle increase with increasing gradient steepness. Rising R-curve behaviour was demonstrated for all compositions of the INS composite, with initiation and plateau toughness decreasing with increasing epoxy content. Evidence of crack bridging by intact ligaments of the epoxy phase in the crack wake explains this behaviour. Crack deflection towards the epoxy region was anticipated and demonstrated for all gradient configurations. An increase in relative crack depth was seen to increase mode-mixity at the crack-tip and subsequent crack deflection, up to a relative depth of ~0.5. No conclusive evidence was found for the influence of crack bridging on crack deflection. Toughness was shown to increase with the inclusion of a microstructural gradient. Measured toughness within graded samples was shown to be controlled by both the local composition and the volume of bridging ligaments in the crack wake. The optimum gradient should ??? extend over the widest region practical, ??? encompass the widest composition range possible, and ??? demonstrate extrinsic crack extension toughening.

H υποβάθμιση της δομικής ακεραιότητας των γηρασμένων κατασκευών αποτελεί ένα από τα σημαντικότερα σύγχρονα τεχνολογικά προβλήματα, και ειδικότερα το πρόβλημα του ‘γηράσκοντος’ Αεροσκάφους αποτελεί ένα από τα σημαντικότερα προβλήματα της Αεροπορικής Βιομηχανίας. Τεχνολογικά το πρόβλημα της γήρανσης της δομής του αεροσκάφους είναι ένα πρόβλημα κόπωσης. Οι περιοχές των συνδέσεων στην άτρακτο ενός αεροσκάφους αποτελούν υψηλά καταπονούμενες περιοχές της δομής, με αποτέλεσμα τη δημιουργία πολλών μικρών ρωγμών στα ελάσματα του περιβλήματος της ατράκτου γύρω από τις οπές (ευρείας έκτασης βλάβη κόπωσης – wide spread fatigue damage). Με το χρόνο λειτουργίας οι ρωγμές αυτές εξελίσσονται και αλληλεπιδρούν. Η κατάσταση αυτή, που ονομάζεται κατάσταση πολλαπλής βλάβης (Multi-Side-Damage) υποβαθμίζει σημαντικά τη φέρουσα ικανότητα του κατασκευαστικού μέρους και μπορεί να οδηγήσει σε απώλεια της δομικής του ακεραιότητας. Η ύπαρξη διάβρωσης επιτείνει σημαντικά το πρόβλημα της δομικής ακεραιότητας του γηράσκοντος αεροσκάφους. Στις υψηλά καταπονούμενες περιοχές της δομής η ύπαρξη διάβρωσης με την ταυτόχρονη παρουσία ρωγμών κόπωσης μπορεί να οδηγήσει σε απώλεια της δομικής ακεραιότητας με καταστροφικές συνέπειες. Πρόσφατες έρευνες [3,4] έδειξαν, ότι η διάβρωση τυπικών αεροπορικών κραμάτων των σειρών 2xxx (π.χ. 2024) 6xxx (π.χ. 6013) και 7xxx (π.χ.7075) σε διαβρωτικό περιβάλλον αποφλοίωσης (EXCO) αλλά και σε φυσική διάβρωση, οδηγεί σε υποβάθμιση του ορίου διαρροής και του ορίου θραύσης των υλικών, κυρίως όμως υποβαθμίζει δραματικά την παραμόρφωση θραύσης και τη ικανότητα των υλικών να αποταμιεύουν μηχανική ενέργεια πριν την θραύση, δηλαδή την αναμενόμενη ανοχή τους στη βλάβη κόπωσης. Η υποβάθμιση αυτή των ιδιοτήτων αποδόθηκε σε ψαθυροποίηση των κραμάτων αλουμινίου που προκαλείται από τη διάβρωση λόγω προσρόφησης και παγίδευσης υδρογόνου σε συγκεκριμένες παγίδες στην μικροδομή του υλικού που εξαρτώνται από το κραματικό σύστημα [56,59,62,68]. Στην παρούσα διατριβή πραγματοποιήθηκε πειραματική και θεωρητική διερεύνηση της επίδρασης της διάβρωσης στα χαρακτηριστικά κόπωσης και θραύσης του κράματος αλουμινίου 2024. / Loss of structural integrity is one of the most significant threats for ageing structures. The occurrence of Multiple Site Damage (MSD), that implies the simultaneous existence of several interacting fatigue cracks at various locations of a structural element can degrade the structural strength and service life of a structure. The occurrence of MSD in older airplanes was highlighted by the “Aloha accident” [49] at 1988, when a Boeing 737 of Aloha Airlines with a service life of nearly 90000 flights suffered an in-flight failure of a portion of the fuselage. The occurrence of corrosion presents an additional significant cause of structural degradation. As the service time for an aircraft structure increases, there is an increasing probability that corrosion will interact with other forms of damage, such as single fatigue cracks or MSD in the form of widespread cracking at regions of high stress gradients; it can result to loss of structural integrity and may lead to fatal consequences. Thus, the effect of corrosion on the damage tolerance ability of advanced aluminum alloys calls for a very diligent consideration to problems associated with the combined effect of corrosion and MSD mechanisms. Extensive experimental data referring to accelerated laboratory corrosion tests, have shown a significant reduction of material mechanical properties, leading to a decrease of the load bearing capacity of the corroded structural member. It has been recognized that, this decrease is associated with hydrogen embrittlement, as hydrogen produced during the corrosion process may diffuse into the material and be trapped at different trapping sites depending on the alloy system [56,62,68]. In the present thesis, experimental and numerical investigations have been carried out in the Laboratory of Technology and Strength of Materials of the University of Patras to study the influence of corrosion on the damage tolerance and fracture toughness characteristics of the high strength aluminum alloy 2024.

No description available.

Introduction of a composition gradient at a join between two materials of different elastic properties should reduce the stress concentrating effect of the interfacial discontinuity. A crack oriented perpendicular to this elasticity gradient will experience mode-mixity, and possible subsequent crack deflection. Explicit analytical solutions for the stress state at the tip of an angled crack in a graded material of a given finite geometry do not exist, and ongoing crack path development in such a gradient has not been characterised. An infiltration processing technique is developed which allows two materials to be joined through a region of graded composition, of tailored width and composition profile. Composition discontinuities at layer interfaces in a stepped gradient can be tolerated due to the resulting interpenetrating network structured (INS) microstructure. Firing stresses were found to be a limitation of the processing technique, overcome by limiting the steepness of the elastic gradient. Alumina and epoxy resin graded composites were produced and tested under monotonic loading, resulting in stable crack path evolution. Stress-field asymmetry at the tip of a crack oriented perpendicular to an elastic gradient was demonstrated, followed by subsequent crack deflection. Stress intensity factor and deflection angle increase with increasing gradient steepness. Rising R-curve behaviour was demonstrated for all compositions of the INS composite, with initiation and plateau toughness decreasing with increasing epoxy content. Evidence of crack bridging by intact ligaments of the epoxy phase in the crack wake explains this behaviour. Crack deflection towards the epoxy region was anticipated and demonstrated for all gradient configurations. An increase in relative crack depth was seen to increase mode-mixity at the crack-tip and subsequent crack deflection, up to a relative depth of ~0.5. No conclusive evidence was found for the influence of crack bridging on crack deflection. Toughness was shown to increase with the inclusion of a microstructural gradient. Measured toughness within graded samples was shown to be controlled by both the local composition and the volume of bridging ligaments in the crack wake. The optimum gradient should ??? extend over the widest region practical, ??? encompass the widest composition range possible, and ??? demonstrate extrinsic crack extension toughening.

Organically modified sol-gel coatings have been investigated as potential replacements for chromate conversion coating of AA1050 and AA2024 aluminium alloys. The coatings were prepared by a combination of a completely hydrolysable precursor of tetra-n-propoxyzirconium (TPOZ), with a partially hydrolysable precursor of glycidoxypropyltrimethoxysilane (GPTMS). GPTMS contains organic functional groups, which are retained in the sol-gel coatings after the hydrolysis-condensation process. Different process parameters, e.g. GPTMS/TPOZ ratios, withdrawal speeds, solvent water concentrations, and curing temperatures were studied. Coatings produced using a low GPTMS/TPOZ ratio and a high withdrawal speed generated significant cracks due to the shrinkage of the coatings. It was found that increase of organic moieties reduced the shrinkage of the coatings and the tendency for crack formation. By controlling process parameters and ratios of organic and inorganic moieties, crack-free sol-gel coatings from 0.1 μm to 9 μm thick can be achieved. The sol-gel coatings formed are amorphous and contain organic epoxy-ether retained silicon oxide, silicon hydroxide, zirconium oxide, zirconium hydroxide, and zirconium acetate. The Si/Zr ratios of resultant sol-gel coatings are proportional to the initial GPTMS/TPOZ ratio. Cerium oxide nanoparticles were successfully incorporated into sol-gel coatings with a single layer and double layer sol-gel process. Through the dip coating process, crack-free sol-gel coatings, of varied thickness, were developed on different aluminium substrate, including electropolished superpure aluminium, magnetron sputtered aluminium with varied copper contents from 0 to 30 wt.%, and commercial AA1050 and 2024 aluminium alloys. Sol-gel coatings formed on commercial AA1050 and 2024 aluminium alloys revealed a significant passivation in 3.5 wt.% sodium chloride solution during anodic polarisation when the sol-gel coating is more than 1 µm thick and proper surface pretreatments of the alloys were used. Corrosion tests by immersion in 3.5 wt% sodium chloride solution and by salt spray in 5 wt.% sodium chloride solution revealed that sol-gel coatings successfully protected AA2024 aluminium alloy against the aggressive environment and have the potential to replace chromate containing coating systems.

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Resumo: A resistência e o mecanismo de corrosão das ligas de alumínio 2024, 7010, 7050 e 7475 foram estudados em solução de NaCl. Os efeitos do tratamento térmico nas ligas, concentração de oxigênio, pH, adição de oxi-ânions e temperatura do meio constituem algumas das variáveis estudadas. Primeiramente, procedeu-se à caracterização físicoquímica dos materiais através de análise química e metalográfica, mediante microscopia eletrônica de varredura e espectroscopia de energia dispersiva. As ligas 2024, 7010, 7050 e 7475 como recebidas, recozidas e envelhecidas, revelaram a existência de partículas ternárias e quaternárias, constituídas por Al:Cu:Fe e Mg ou Zn. Também foi observado um maior número de partículas pequenas de composição variável situando-se, preferencialmente, nos contornos dos grãos. Os resultados dos ensaios de corrosão em meios aerados e desaerados indicam que o cromato é efetivo como inibidor da corrosão localizada em ambas ligas e que o molibdato somente na liga 7050. O efeito inibidor do tungstato se revela em meio desaerado e é comparativamente menor daquele observado com os outros oxi-ânions. As análises quantitativas de superfície das ligas após os ensaios de imersão indicam que ainda na presença de inibidor, se pites foram nucleados, eles crescem. / Abstract: Corrosion resistance and mechanism of 2024, 7010, 7050 and 7475 aluminium alloys have been studied in NaCl solution. Heat treatment effect on the alloys, oxygen concentration, pH, oxy-anions addition and environment temperature constitutes some of the studied variables. First, it has been proceeded the materials physical chemistry characterization through chemical and metalography analysis, by means of scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. The 2024, 7010, 7050 and 7475 alloys as-received, annealed and aged, have disclosed ternary and quaternary particle existence, consisting of Al:Cu:Fe and Mg or Zn. A major small particle number of variable composition preferentially localized in grain boundaries has also been observed. Corrosion tests results in aerated and deaerated media indicate that chromate are effective as localized corrosion inhibitor in both alloys whereas molibdate is only in 7050 alloy. Tungstate inhibiting effect is revealed in deaerated medium and is comparatively lesser than that observed with the other oxy-anions. Quantitative alloys surface analyses after immersion tests indicate that despite inhibitor presence, when pits have been nucleated, they grow.