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The purpose of this project is to evaluate the effects of a campaign that Uppsalahem implemented in February 2013, in order to make their tenants consume less water. The result of the campaign is evaluated in terms of reduced water usage and reduced emissions of greenhouse gas related to the heating of the water through district heating. Four different residential areas in urban Uppsala, where Uppsalahem implemented their water saving campaign have been studied. All calculations are done in MATLAB. The results regarding water usage is presented in cubic meters and the greenhouse gas emissions are presented in terms of carbon dioxide equivalents. A sensitivity analysis of the data is performed in order to study natural occurring variances of water consumption over time. In order to determine which parameter has the greatest impact on reducing carbon dioxide emissions, a sensitivity analysis of the fuel mix used at the district heating power plant is made. The results show that there has been a reduction of water usage since after the campaign was implemented and the sensitivity analysis of the data indicates that there has been an especially large decrease in water consumption between the years 2012 and 2013. Further though, the results contain monthly irregularities in water usage in the different areas. This shows that the reduction of water consumption has not been temporally associated to the campaign, which indicates that the reduction might not be an effect of the campaign. Regarding carbon dioxide emissions, the sensitivity analysis indicates that the kind of fuel mix Vattenfall use at their district heating plant has a much greater impact than the individual water usage behaviors of the tenants.

Chapter 1: Tradable Permits under Environmental and Cost-reducing R&D: This chapter models simultaneous investments in both environmental and cost-reducing R&D by asymmetric Cournot duopolist. Pollution rights (emission permits) are allocated by the regulator and can be traded between firms. Both R&D competition and cooperation are considered. In a three-stage game, firms first invest in R&D, then trade permits, and then compete in output. The strategic interaction between different types of R&D investments is analyzed. It is found that giving more permits to one firm induces it to conduct more cost-reducing but less environmental R&D. The second-best optimal allocation of pollution rights is also analyzed. This allocation matters for social welfare under R&D competition, but is irrelevant under R&D cooperation. Moreover, the optimal allocation depends on R&D spillovers. This paper also studies the grandfathering of permits based on historical output. Compared with the second-best optimal allocation, the higher the emissions reduction level, the more likely that grandfathering allocates too few permits to the large firm and too many permits to the small firm. Adding an R&D budget constraint leads firms to under-invest in cost-reducing R&D relative to environmental R&D. Chapter 2: Tradable Permits under Environmental R&D between Upstream and Downstream Industries: This chapter models the simultaneous investments in environmental R&D by both downstream and upstream industries, with two symmetric firms within each industry competing à la Cournot. Pollution rights are allocated by the regulator, and firms can trade permits. R&D competition, intra-industry (horizontal), inter-industry (vertical) and both intra- and inter-industry (generalized) R&D cooperations are considered. In a four-stage game, firms first invest in R&D, then trade permits, then upstream firms compete in intermediate good production, and finally downstream firms compete in final food production. The strategic interactions between R&D investments are analyzed. It is found that an increase in either vertical or horizontal R&D spillovers reduce the permit price but increase production, but the spillover effects on R&D investments are ambiguous and they depend on the number of permits that a firm receives from the government. However, firms undertake more R&D under generalized cooperation than vertical cooperation, irrespective of spillovers and the allocation of permits, and this results in higher social welfare under generalized cooperation than vertical cooperation. The optimal allocation of pollution rights by the regulator is also considered. This allocation matters for social welfare under R&D competition and horizontal cooperation, but is irrelevant under vertical and generalized cooperations. Chapter 3: Is There a Principle of Targeting in Environmental Taxation?: This chapter studies whether the "principle of targeting", which is referred to by Dixit (1985) as the tax formulae for dirty goods have "additivity property" (Sandmo 1975) and externality-generating sources should be directly targeted (Bhagwati and Johnson 1960), can be applicable in the presence of a uniform commodity tax with an additional emissions tax. We consider three perfectly competitive markets, one of them produces a non-polluting good and the other two produce polluting goods. The regulator chooses optimal taxes on all three markets to maximize social welfare and finances an exogenous public expenditure. First all, it is found that the additivity property does not hold under differentiated taxes, and is even further weakened with a uniform commodity tax. It is also shown that the Pigouvian tax is unlikely to apply on the top of the uniform commodity tax. Furthermore, if there is only tax instrument available -- i.e. either the uniform commodity tax or the emissions tax -- then the uniform commodity tax (emissions tax) induces higher social welfare when marginal social damage is low (high).

Cooling tower plume rise, dilution and dispersion is investigated using a numerical model. Both single and double sources are considered. The main aim of the investigation is concerned with comparison of the computational results to existing wind tunnel experimental data as well as simple empirical rise height formula. Analysis of the interaction of adjacent sources, and subsequent rise augmentation compared to that of a single source, is a central theme of the work. A full-scale hybrid mechanical cooling tower is modelled as a surface mounted cuboid block 20 m high with an internal development duct of 10 m diameter. Both jet and moderately buoyant plume type sources are studied. Two exit velocity ratios are also considered. An oncoming atmospheric boundary is modelled with an associated logarithmic velocity profile and profiles of turbulence kinetic energy and length scale. Two double source orientations, tandem and side-by-side with respect to the oncoming cross wind, are studied. Physical symmetry is utilised and so only half of the domain is modelled. Both the small-scale (wind tunnel) and full-scale were modelled. The small-scale work used combinations of a low Reynolds number k-e turbulence model and both hybrid and QUICK discretisation schemes. The high Reynolds numbers encountered in the fullscale allowed the use of a number of different turbulence models, namely the standard k-e model, the RNG k-e model and a differential flux model, combined again with the hybrid and QUICK discretisation schemes. The results of a number of sensitivity tests showed that plume rise in this case was not sensitive to the turbulence model constant C3 or to source turbulence levels. A decrease in the turbulent Prandtl number led to a marked increase in the turbulent diffusion of the thermal plume. Horizontal plume spreading was underpredicted in both small and full-scales compared to the experimental data. Plume rise and dilution was, in the majority of cases, predicted accurately compared to both the experimental data and also to rise heights given by simple empirical relationships. Generally, the choice of discretisation scheme was a more important factor than choice of turbulence model. Interaction of side-by-side plumes was dominated by the interaction of the rotating vortex pairs within the plumes. A tandem source arrangement led to early merging and efficient rise enhancement. Merging into a single type plume occurred sooner with an decrease in exit velocity ratio, R.

The overall objectives of this thesis were to investigate the potential of the peroxyoxalate chemiluminescence (POOL) reaction for the quantitative detection of target analytes in non-aqueous matrices and to compare quantitative performance with fluorescence detection. The target analytes investigated were polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and aliphatic amines. These were selected as an important class of compounds in engine exhaust emissions and a detergent additive in diesel fuel respectively. Chapter one outlines the challenges of analysing petroleum products and engine exhaust emissions and discusses the potential of luminescence techniques, particularly chemiluminescence (CL), for the quantification of trace components. The chapter also reviews the technique of flow injection (FT) as a means of sample delivery for CL detection and as a potential technique for field deployment. Liquid chromatography techniques are described as a means of separation of complex matrices, e.g. fuels and engine exhaust particulates, in the laboratory prior to CL detection. The luminescence properties of several PAHs were investigated in Chapter Two. Optimum excitation and emission wavelengths for eleven PAHs in four different solvents were determined using a batch fluorescence technique. A FI approach was used to determine PAH concentrations using fluorescence and POCL detection. Two aryl oxalates; bis(2,4-dinitophenyl)oxalate and bis(2,4,6-trichlorophenyl)oxalate were compared for their suitability for PAH determinations and an investigation of the key variables (e.g. concentration of aryl oxalate and hydrogen peroxide, mobile phase composition and pH) affecting POCL was performed. Recommendations for the optimum conditions for the determination of PAHs by POCL detection were determined, A comparison between a photodiode based detection device and a low power (12V) photomultiplier tube was also described. In Chapter Three the procedure of using POCL detection as a post column liquid chromatography (LC) detector for PAHs has been considered. The performance of the POCL detection system was compared with wavelength programmed fluorescence. Both reversed and normal phase LC was investigated and the suitability of POCL detection with each approach was discussed. Additionally the procedure for the LC separation and analysis of SRM 1649 (Urban Dust/Organics) and SRM 1650 (Diesel Particulate Matter) was described. The relative performance of fluorescence and CL detection are discussed. Chapter four describes the principles of multivariate calibration of spectrophotometric data, and three commonly applied techniques (PCR, PLSI and PLS2). Fluorescence data was obtained for synthetic mixtures of PAHs containing two, three, four and five components. A procedure whereby individual spectra were 'glued' together before undergoing data analysis has been developed and the results obtained discussed. POCL emission spectra for five PAHs were acquired using a two-dimensional charge coupled device (CCD). The sensitivity of the CCD system toward POCL detection of PAHs and a multivariate investigation using benzo[a]pyrene and benzo[k]fluoranthene has been described. The potential of the fluorescence and CL approaches used has been discussed. Chapter five describes the aryl oxalate sulphorhodamine-101 CL reaction and its application to the determination of amines. A FI optimisation of the reaction parameters is presented together with some quantitative data for the detection of a homologous series of amines and dodecylamine (a commonly added detergent compound in diesel fuels). The application of the technique toward the detection of dodecylamine in a diesel fuel matrix and the potential as a field deployable technique was also considered.

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The present work is based on the need for understanding the in-cylinder flow and its subsequent effects on combustion in a valved-two-stroke spark ignition engine with fuel injection using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) and experimental techniques. In this context, the CFD code KIVA-II has been modified to model the two-stroke engine gas exchange and combustion processes. A 3-D Cartesian grid generation program for complex engine geometry has been added to the KIVA code which has been modified to include intake and exhaust flow processes with valves. New and improved sub models for wall jet interaction, mixing controlled combustion and one dimensional wave action have also been incorporated. The modified version of the program has been used to simulate a fuel injected two-stroke spark ignition engine and parametric studies have been undertaken. The simulated flow, combustion and exhaust emission characteristics over a wide range of operating conditions show the expected trends in behaviour observed in actual engines. In the second phase of this study, the air-assisted-fuel-injection (AAFI) process into a cylinder has been simulated with a high resolution computational grid. The simulation results are presented and compared with experimental data obtained using the Schlieren optical technique. An approximate method based on the conservation of mass, momentum and energy of the spray jet and using a comparatively coarse grid has been suggested for simulating the AAFI process. The simulation study predicts a high degree of atomisation of fuel spray with Sauter mean diameter around 10 μm even with moderate air and fuel pressures. The penetration and width of spray are simulated within 15% of the experimental values. In the last phase of this study, the flow and combustion processes have been studied for a four-stroke spark ignition engine with the AAFI process. The simulation results obtained using this approximate method have been validated with experimental data generated for the same engine configuration.

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Thesis (M.Clin.Audiol./Ph.D.)--University of Western Australia, 2005.