L’objectif de ce travail est double : d’une part, il s’agit de développer une méthodologie intégrée pour la construction d’un modèle géomécanique ainsi que la représentation des incertitudes associées aux propriétés poro-élastiques des roches constitutives, en exploitant l’ensemble des données disponibles et en s’appuyant de façon cohérente sur les modèles de réservoir statique et dynamique classiquement utilisés par les géologues et les ingénieurs réservoir ; d’autre part, il s’agit d’analyser quel est l’impact des hétérogénéités géologiques, souvent négligées, dans la réponse mécanique du réservoir sollicité par son exploitation, et d’aboutir à des incertitudes sur les champs de contraintes et de déplacements, issues des incertitudes sur ces hétérogénéités et leurs paramètres mécaniques. Pour ce faire, une méthodologie intégrée s’appuyant sur des simulations géostatistiques a été développée. Après la construction du cadre géométrique 3D, le remplissage des propriétés au sein du réservoir suit une démarche de simulations géostatistiques 3D emboîtées, dans laquelle la représentation des hétérogénéités lithologiques conditionne la génération des propriétés poro-élastiques. La démarche consiste ensuite à représenter les incertitudes sur le modèle géomécanique par des ensembles de réalisations géostatistiques dont la réponse mécanique est alors calculée avec un simulateur mécanique aux éléments finis. Les incertitudes sur les champs de contraintes et de déformations sont déduites ensuite des différentes réponses mécaniques obtenues. La démarche a été mise en œuvre sur un réservoir réel, dans un environnement fluvio-deltaïque, produisant en Mer du Nord. Dans ce cadre, il a été démontré que les hétérogénéités du réservoir et leurs incertitudes influencent significativement les calculs des champs de contraintes et de déformations, ainsi que les risques mécaniques de rupture. Des incertitudes sur les quantités mécaniques analysées (premier invariant du tenseur des contraintes et subsidence) ont été aussi estimées / This work has two main objectives. The first one is to develop an integrated methodology allowing to build a 3D geomechanical model and also to image the uncertainties attached to the poro-mechanical properties of the constitutive rocks. This geomechanical model should be based on all related available data and should be consistent with the static and dynamic models, currently built by reservoir geologists and engineers. The second objective is to analyse the impact of geological heterogeneities, which are often neglected, in the mechanical response of the reservoir induced by its exploitation, and furthermore to derive uncertainties on the stress and deformation fields related to the uncertainties on the input properties of the geomechanical model. An integrated methodology based on geostatistical simulations is developed. First, the geometric frame is built; then an approach of embedded stochastic simulations is carried out to infill the different reservoir properties, the lithological description constraining the petrophysical and poro-elastic descriptions. The next step is to generate the mechanical responses of the stochastic realisations, using a finite-element mechanical simulator. The uncertainties on the resulting stress and displacement fields are then deduced from the multiple mechanical responses which are computed. This approach is demonstrated on a real field case, a fluvio-deltaic reservoir in North Sea. It is shown on this example that the reservoir heterogeneities and their uncertainties significantly influence the calculations of stress and strain fields, and also the risks of mechanical failure. Uncertainties on the mechanical quantities under analysis (first invariant of the stress tensor and subsidence) are also derived

[pt] O desenvolvimento de campos de petróleo afeta significativamente o meio geológico ao redor do reservatório. Os efeitos geomecânicos decorrentes da exploração podem ser nocivos à integridade de componentes presentes no sistema, notadamente os poços. O objetivo deste estudo foi analisar os efeitos do desenvolvimento do reservatório sobre a integridade de poços, empregando simulações de natureza fluido-mecânica e multi-escala. Para as análises globais, foi implementada e validada uma configuração de acoplamento fluido-mecânico parcial, utilizando o programa de simulação de reservatórios IMEX e o programa de análise de tensões ABAQUS, baseada na metodologia de acoplamento parcial desenvolvida pelo Grupo de Tecnologia e Engenharia de Petróleo da PUC-Rio. A conexão teórica entre modelos de poço e reservatório foi estabelecida através de um workflow multi-escala, desenvolvido para nortear a análise de integridade de poços em virtude dos efeitos de produção. Para a otimização da conexão numérica entre os modelos de diferentes escalas, foi desenvolvido um módulo gerenciador de análises locais, denominado Módulo APOLLO, capaz de incluir na simulação local as etapas de perfuração e completação do poço, bem como os efeitos geomecânicos provenientes da simulação global acoplada. Análises acopladas e multi-escala foram realizadas em dois poços hipotéticos, presentes em um modelo de reservatório com a geometria do Campo de Namorado. Através das ferramentas desenvolvidas nesta Tese, foi possível realizar uma previsão detalhada e precisa do mecanismo que levou os poços avaliados ao colapso. Constatou-se que o caráter dos estados limites observados foi essencialmente tridimensional, bem como dependente da abordagem de acoplamento empregada na simulação global. / [en] The development of petroleum fields affects substantially the geological environment around the reservoir. The geomechanical effects arising from hydrocarbon exploration may present harmful effects on the integrity of the system components, particularly the wells. The aim of this work was to analyze the reservoir development effects over the well integrity, employing fluid-mechanical and multi-scale simulations. For the global analyzes, it was implemented and validated a fluid-mechanic partial coupling configuration, using the reservoir simulation software IMEX and the stress analysis software ABAQUS, based on the coupling methodology developed by the Group of Technology and Petroleum Engineering of PUC-Rio. The theoretical connection between the models of reservoir and wells was established by a multi-scale workflow, which was developed to guide the well integrity analysis due to production effects. In order to optimize the numerical connection between distinct scale models, it was developed a local analysis manager, called APOLLO module, which can include the steps of drilling and completion, as well as the geomechanical effects from the global simulation, in the local simulations. Coupled multi-scale analyzes were performed in two hypothetical wells, present in a reservoir model based on the geometry of the Namorado Field. Through the tools developed in this Thesis, it was possible to perform a detailed and accurate prediction of the mechanism that leads the evaluated wells to the collapse. It was found that the character of the observed limit states was essentially three-dimensional, as well as dependent of the coupling approach employed on the global simulation.

Esta dissertação teve como principal objetivo desenvolver um estudo de caracterização dos maciços rochosos em encostas naturais, via levantamento e análises das principais descontinuidades presentes no sítio urbano da cidade de Ouro Preto- M.G. Nesta pesquisa, utilizou-se as classificações geomecânicas como ferramenta para o mapeamento geotécnico, com a geração de documentos cartográficos na escala 1:5.000, em uma área de aproximadamente 2,88 km2, compreendendo uma parcela da Serra de Ouro Preto e do centro histórico. Os sistemas de classificações geomecânicos, Sistema RMR (BIENIAWSKI, 1989), Sistema Q (BARTON et al., 1974) e Sistema SMR (ROMANA, 1985), utilizados na pesquisa, expressaram o comportamento dos maciços rochosos que, associados aos documentos cartográficos gerados, serviram de base para a elaboração das cartas de zoneamento. Como ferramenta auxiliar, foi proposto um índice de correção para o parâmetro R.Q.D. ( \"Rock Qualily Designation\"), com a finalidade de adequar os valores deste parâmetro, de acordo com o comportamento dos maciços em campo, visto que os primeiros valores se apresentaram elevados. Os documentos cartográficos gerados foram: mapas de documentação I e II, mapa geológico, mapa de feições dos movimentos gravitacionais de massa e processos correlatos, carta das encostas com suas declividades e cartas de zoneamento para cada sistema de classificação geomecânica. / The main objective at this work is to develop a study at characterization of rock masses in natural slopes, in agreement with lifting and analysis of the principal descontinuitys present in the urban area of Ouro Preto-M.G. That work to make use of geomechanics classifications as tools to engineering geological mapping with generation of the carthographycal documents at scale 1:5,000 at area of aproximate 2,88 km2, that area cover part of Serra de Ouro Preto and historical center. The systems of geomechanic classifications, System RMR (BIENIAWSKI, 1989), System Q (BARTON et al., 1974) e System SMR (ROMANA, 1985) used in research expression the rock mass behavior, that associate carthographycal documents general with base to making zonning chart. As auxiliary tool was propose a correction index for R.Q.D. (\"Rock Quality Designation\") with aim of adapt the value that R.Q.D. in agreement with behavior at roch mass in field propor the first value presents upper. The carthographical documents produced were: documentation maps I and II, geological map, mass movements and related processes scars map, declivity chart and zonning chart for the geomechanics classifications systems.

La question de limpact des transferts de gaz sur le comportement poro-mécanique des matériaux argileux se révèle être un axe de recherches essentiel pour sassurer de la faisabilité des solutions denfouissements de déchets radioactifs dans des couches géologiques profondes. En effet, que ce soit la ventilation permanente des galeries ou la migration du gaz produit par corrosion des composants métalliques, les écoulements de gaz influencent la distribution des pressions de pores dans le massif. Les importants couplages hydro-mécaniques affectent dès lors la roche hôte argileuses, que ce soit par une modification de létendue et des caractéristiques de la zone endommagée à proximité de la paroi suite à une désaturation accentuée par la ventilation ou par le développement dans le massif de chemins préférentiels découlement suite à une rapide et forte montée en pression de gaz. Ces sollicitations peuvent induire des changements importants dans les caractéristiques de la barrière de confinement et compromettre lisolation des matières radioactives. Face au besoin de comprendre et de quantifier ces phénomènes, notre travail se propose dapporter des éléments de réponses dans les domaines de lexpérimental, du développement de modèles constitutifs mais surtout dans la modélisation hydro-mécanique des problèmes de transferts de gaz dans les roches argileuses dans un code aux éléments finis. Linteraction entre un matériau poreux et latmosphère qui lentoure a été étudiée tout dabord dun point de vue expérimental, en développant des essais des essais de séchage convectif. Ces essais ont été analysés sur base dune approche novatrice en géomécanique, basée sur lexistence dune couche limite en surface contrôlant les échanges de vapeur deau et de chaleur avec lextérieur. Une condition limite thermo-hydraulique non conventionnelle a ensuite été développée et introduite dans un code aux éléments finis et permet de reproduire les échanges observés en surface. Des modélisations de validation de la condition limite et dapplication dans un problème proche de celui rencontré dans le contexte du stockage de déchets radioactifs permettent enfin de mettre clairement en évidence linfluence des coefficients de transfert de la couche limite sur le comportement mécanique du massif rocheux. Les essais d'injection de gaz sur le long terme dans les matériaux argileux indiquent des instabilités dans les écoulements qui sont certainement associées à des ouvertures et des fermetures de chemins localisés à travers l'échantillon. Ces ouvertures/fermetures pourraient résulter d'une combinaison de plusieurs processus : outre les effets capillaires, il semble nécessaire de prendre en compte un fort couplage avec la mécanique. Les modèles classiques qui reposent sur une approche biphasique continue des écoulements ne permettent en effet pas la reproduction de tels comportements. Un couplage hydro-mécanique supplémentaire est proposé en considérant une évolution de la perméabilité et de la courbe de rétention avec les déformations. La simulation de deux essais en laboratoire montre quun tel modèle semble être une piste intéressante pour reproduire des chemins localisés et plus conducteurs observés expérimentalement, mais cela nécessite d'avoir une description complémentaire sur l'origine de la localisation de la migration du gaz dans les matériaux argileux. Plusieurs exemples mettent également en évidence limportance dune détermination expérimentale précise de la courbe de rétention et de la perméabilité au gaz dans la zone quasi saturée, ce qui est actuellement rendu délicat et complexe par les méthodes expérimentales à notre disposition.

There are two big challenges which restrict the extensive application of fully coupled geomechanics-reservoir modeling. The first challenge is computational effort. Consider a 3-D simulation combining pressure and heat diffusion, elastoplastic mechanical response, and saturation changes; each node has at least 5 degrees of freedom, each leading to a separate equation. Furthermore, regions of large p, T and σ′ gradients require small-scale discretization for accurate solutions, greatly increasing the number of equations. When the rock mass surrounding the reservoir region is included, it is represented by many elements or nodes. These factors mean that accurate analysis of realistic 3-D problems is challenging, and will so remain as we seek to solve larger and larger coupled problems involving nonlinear responses. To overcome the first challenge, the displacement discontinuity method is introduced wherein a large-scale 3-D case is divided into a reservoir region where Δp, ΔT and non-linear effects are critical and analyzed using FEM, and an outside region in which the reservoir is encased where Δp and ΔT effects are inconsequential and the rock may be treated as elastic, analyzed with a 3D displacement discontinuity formulation. This scheme leads to a tremendous reduction in the degrees of freedom, yet allows for reasonably rigorous incorporation of the reactions of the surrounding rock. The second challenge arises from some forms of numerical instability. There are actually two types of sharp gradients implied in the transient advection-diffusion problem: one is caused by the high Peclet numbers, the other by the sharp gradient which appears during the small time steps due to the transient solution. The way to eliminate the spurious oscillations is different when the sharp gradients are induced by the transient evolution than when they are produced by the advective terms, and existing literature focuses mainly on eliminating the spurious spatial temperature oscillations caused by advection-dominated flow. To overcome the second challenge, numerical instability sources are addressed by introducing a new stabilized finite element method, the subgrid scale/gradient subgrid scale (SGS/GSGS) method.

There are two big challenges which restrict the extensive application of fully coupled geomechanics-reservoir modeling. The first challenge is computational effort. Consider a 3-D simulation combining pressure and heat diffusion, elastoplastic mechanical response, and saturation changes; each node has at least 5 degrees of freedom, each leading to a separate equation. Furthermore, regions of large p, T and σ′ gradients require small-scale discretization for accurate solutions, greatly increasing the number of equations. When the rock mass surrounding the reservoir region is included, it is represented by many elements or nodes. These factors mean that accurate analysis of realistic 3-D problems is challenging, and will so remain as we seek to solve larger and larger coupled problems involving nonlinear responses. To overcome the first challenge, the displacement discontinuity method is introduced wherein a large-scale 3-D case is divided into a reservoir region where Δp, ΔT and non-linear effects are critical and analyzed using FEM, and an outside region in which the reservoir is encased where Δp and ΔT effects are inconsequential and the rock may be treated as elastic, analyzed with a 3D displacement discontinuity formulation. This scheme leads to a tremendous reduction in the degrees of freedom, yet allows for reasonably rigorous incorporation of the reactions of the surrounding rock. The second challenge arises from some forms of numerical instability. There are actually two types of sharp gradients implied in the transient advection-diffusion problem: one is caused by the high Peclet numbers, the other by the sharp gradient which appears during the small time steps due to the transient solution. The way to eliminate the spurious oscillations is different when the sharp gradients are induced by the transient evolution than when they are produced by the advective terms, and existing literature focuses mainly on eliminating the spurious spatial temperature oscillations caused by advection-dominated flow. To overcome the second challenge, numerical instability sources are addressed by introducing a new stabilized finite element method, the subgrid scale/gradient subgrid scale (SGS/GSGS) method.

In geothermal reservoirs and unconventional gas reservoirs with very low matrix permeability, fractures are the main routes of fluid flow and heat transport, so the fracture permeability change is important. In fact, reservoir development under this circumstance relies on generation and stimulation of a fracture network. This thesis presents numerical simulation of the response of a fractured rock to injection and extraction considering the role of poro-thermoelasticity and joint deformation. Fluid flow and heat transport in the fracture are treated using a finite difference method while the fracture and rock matrix deformation are determined using the displacement discontinuity method (DDM). The fractures response to fluid injection and extraction is affected both by the induced stresses as well as by the initial far-field stress. The latter is accounted for using the non-equilibrium condition, i.e., relaxing the assumption that the rock joints are in equilibrium with the in-situ stress state. The fully coupled DDM simulation has been used to carry out several case studies to model the fracture response under different injection/extractions, in-situ stresses, joint geometries and properties, for both equilibrium and non-equilibrium conditions. The following observations are made: i) Fluid injection increases the pressure causing the joint to open. For non-isothermal injection, cooling increases the fracture aperture drastically by inducing tensile stresses. Higher fracture aperture means higher conductivity. ii) In a single fracture under constant anisotropic in-situ stress (non-equilibrium condition), permanent shear slip is encountered on all fracture segments when the shear strength is overcome by shear stress in response to fluid injection. With cooling operation, the fracture segments in the vicinity of the injection point are opened due to cooling-induced tensile stress and injection pressure, and all the fracture segments experience slip. iii) Fluid pressure in fractures increases in response to compression. The fluid compressibility and joint stiffness play a role. iv) When there are injection and extraction in fractured reservoirs, the cooler fluid flows through the fracture channels from the injection point to extraction well extracting heat from the warmer reservoir matrix. As the matrix cools, the resulting thermal stress increases the fracture apertures and thus increases the fracture conductivity. v) Injection decreases the amount of effective stress due to pressure increase in fracture and matrix near a well. In contrast, extraction increases the amount of effective stress due to pressure drop in fracture and matrix.

Tight gas and shale oil play an important role in energy security and in meeting an increasing energy demand. Hydraulic fracturing is a widely used technology for recovering these resources. The design and evaluation of hydraulic fracture operation is critical for efficient production from tight gas and shale plays. The efficiency of fracturing jobs depends on the interaction between hydraulic (induced) and naturally occurring discrete fractures. In this work, a coupled reservoir-fracture flow model is described which accounts for varying reservoir geometries and complexities including non-planar fractures. Different flow models such as Darcy flow and Reynold's lubrication equation for fractures and reservoir, respectively are utilized to capture flow physics accurately. Furthermore, the geomechanics effects have been included by considering a multiphase Biot's model. An accurate modeling of solid deformations necessitates a better estimation of fluid pressure inside the fracture. The fractures and reservoir are modeled explicitly allowing accurate representation of contrasting physical descriptions associated with each of the two. The approach presented here is in contrast with existing averaging approaches such as dual and discrete-dual porosity models where the effects of fractures are averaged out. A fracture connected to an injection well shows significant width variations as compared to natural fractures where these changes are negligible. The capillary pressure contrast between the fracture and the reservoir is accounted for by utilizing different capillary pressure curves for the two features. Additionally, a quantitative assessment of hydraulic fracturing jobs relies upon accurate predictions of fracture growth during slick water injection for single and multistage fracturing scenarios. It is also important to consistently model the underlying physical processes from hydraulic fracturing to long-term production. A recently introduced thermodynamically consistent phase-field approach for pressurized fractures in porous medium is utilized which captures several characteristic features of crack propagation such as joining, branching and non-planar propagation in heterogeneous porous media. The phase-field approach captures both the fracture-width evolution and the fracture-length propagation. In this work, the phase-field fracture propagation model is briefly discussed followed by a technique for coupling this to a fractured poroelastic reservoir simulator. We also present a general compositional formulation using multipoint flux mixed finite element (MFMFE) method on general hexahedral grids with a future prospect of treating energized fractures. The mixed finite element framework allows for local mass conservation, accurate flux approximation and a more general treatment of boundary conditions. The multipoint flux inherent in MFMFE scheme allows the usage of a full permeability tensor. An accurate treatment of diffusive/dispersive fluxes owing to additional velocity degrees of freedom is also presented. The applications areas of interest include gas flooding, CO₂ sequestration, contaminant removal and groundwater remediation. / text

[pt] Atrelado aos cenários cada vez mais complexos de extração de energia, o estudo de fenômenos acoplados em meios porosos - notadamente térmicos, hidráulicos, químicos e mecânicos - tem se apresentado como essencial na previsão de comportamento de meios geológicos no que diz respeito à disposição de rejeitos radioativos, armazenamento de dióxido de carbono, engenharia de reservatórios geotérmicos e geomecânica de reservatórios. Assim, este trabalho objetiva desenvolver um esquema de acoplamento termo-hidro-mecânico-químico iterativo visando a simulação do armazenamento geológico de dióxido de carbono, empregando um simulador de fluxo composicional (GEM) e um programa de análise de tensões (ABAQUS ou CHRONOS). A idealização das metodologias de acoplamento foi efetuada através dos processos hidro-mecânico, termo-hidro-mecânico e termo-hidro-mecânico-químico, bem como as validações e aplicações em casos reais. Os casos de validação, realizados empregando modelos simplificados monofásicos, apresentaram resultados satisfatórios quanto ao comportamento hidro-mecânico e termo-hidro-mecânico. Adicionalmente às validações, os esquemas termo-hidro-mecânico e termo-hidro-mecânico-químico foram aplicados em dois casos reais de armazenamento de CO2 apresentados na literatura, projeto In Salah (Argélia) e aquífero Utsira (Noruega), respectivamente. De maneira geral, os resultados encontrados, para ambos os casos estudados, representaram acuradamente as respostas encontradas em campo, fato que evidencia a qualidade, robustez e aplicabilidade dos esquemas de acoplamento propostos neste trabalho. / [en] Considering the increasingly complex scenarios of energy extraction, the study of coupled phenomena in porous media - notably thermal, hydraulic, chemical and mechanical - has been considered as essential in order to predict the behavior of geological media with regard to radioactive waste storage, CO2 geological storage, geomechanics of geothermal reservoirs and reservoir geomechanics. Thus, this work aims to develop a thermo-hydro-mechanical-chemical iterative coupling scheme in order to simulate the geological storage of CO2, employing a compositional flow simulator (GEM) and a stress analysis program (ABAQUS or CHRONOS). The idealization of the coupling methodologies was carried out through the processes hydro-mechanical, thermo-hydro-mechanical and thermo-hydro-mechanical-chemical, as well as the validations and applications in real cases. The validation cases, performed employing simplified single-phase models, presented satisfactory results regarding the hydro-mechanical and thermo-hydro-mechanical behaviors. Additionally to the validations, the thermo-hydro-mechanical and thermo-hydro-mechanical-chemical schemes were applied in two real cases of CO2 geological storage reported by the literature, In Salah project (Algeria) and Utsira aquifer (Norway), respectively. In general, the results found, in both cases studied, accurately represented the behavior observed in the field, which in turn highlights the accuracy, robustness and applicability of the coupling schemes proposed in this work.

Esta dissertação teve como principal objetivo desenvolver um estudo de caracterização dos maciços rochosos em encostas naturais, via levantamento e análises das principais descontinuidades presentes no sítio urbano da cidade de Ouro Preto- M.G. Nesta pesquisa, utilizou-se as classificações geomecânicas como ferramenta para o mapeamento geotécnico, com a geração de documentos cartográficos na escala 1:5.000, em uma área de aproximadamente 2,88 km2, compreendendo uma parcela da Serra de Ouro Preto e do centro histórico. Os sistemas de classificações geomecânicos, Sistema RMR (BIENIAWSKI, 1989), Sistema Q (BARTON et al., 1974) e Sistema SMR (ROMANA, 1985), utilizados na pesquisa, expressaram o comportamento dos maciços rochosos que, associados aos documentos cartográficos gerados, serviram de base para a elaboração das cartas de zoneamento. Como ferramenta auxiliar, foi proposto um índice de correção para o parâmetro R.Q.D. ( \"Rock Qualily Designation\"), com a finalidade de adequar os valores deste parâmetro, de acordo com o comportamento dos maciços em campo, visto que os primeiros valores se apresentaram elevados. Os documentos cartográficos gerados foram: mapas de documentação I e II, mapa geológico, mapa de feições dos movimentos gravitacionais de massa e processos correlatos, carta das encostas com suas declividades e cartas de zoneamento para cada sistema de classificação geomecânica. / The main objective at this work is to develop a study at characterization of rock masses in natural slopes, in agreement with lifting and analysis of the principal descontinuitys present in the urban area of Ouro Preto-M.G. That work to make use of geomechanics classifications as tools to engineering geological mapping with generation of the carthographycal documents at scale 1:5,000 at area of aproximate 2,88 km2, that area cover part of Serra de Ouro Preto and historical center. The systems of geomechanic classifications, System RMR (BIENIAWSKI, 1989), System Q (BARTON et al., 1974) e System SMR (ROMANA, 1985) used in research expression the rock mass behavior, that associate carthographycal documents general with base to making zonning chart. As auxiliary tool was propose a correction index for R.Q.D. (\"Rock Quality Designation\") with aim of adapt the value that R.Q.D. in agreement with behavior at roch mass in field propor the first value presents upper. The carthographical documents produced were: documentation maps I and II, geological map, mass movements and related processes scars map, declivity chart and zonning chart for the geomechanics classifications systems.