Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a well-known and much debated neurological disorder. The core symptoms consist of a lacking ability to maintain focus, hyperactivity and a motoric restlessness. It is a neurological disorder, with its causes under much debate, although this essay identifies some important brain areas and transmitter systems. The aim of this essay is to give an overview of the available treatments for children with ADHD in the form of the two largest groups of treatments; pharmacological treatments and psychosocial treatments. The conclusion found is that pharmacological treatments are more effective at reducing the core symptoms of ADHD, while psychosocial treatments are more effective at improving the development of social functioning, suggesting a combination to be the superior choice.

Data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth (NLSCY), a nationally representative and prospective cohort, was used to explore patterns of problem behaviour in elementary school aged children across time and their association to adolescent health-risk outcomes. Latent profile analyses identified four profiles of problem behaviour: (1) low on all problem behaviours, (2) moderate on all problem behaviours, (3) high on all problem behaviours, and (4) high on hyperactivity/inattention and internalizing. This measurement invariant trend was observed at ages 6/7, 8/9, and 10/11. Transition patterns between these profiles of problem behaviour from ages 6/7 to 10/11 were also identified (n=8,266). The association of these profiles and transition patterns with health-risk outcomes were computed using logistic regression modelling. While patterns of persisting problem behaviour were associated with suicidal thoughts, substance use, and delinquency, they did not differ from the profile at age 10/11 years, where the “Moderate all” and “High all” profiles of problem behaviour predicted the most health-risk outcomes in adolescence. The most recent assessment of problem behaviour in adolescence was as good of a predictor of adolescent health-risk outcomes relative to patterns of problem behaviour across time.

Studien ämnar undersöka om människor med ADHD uppvisar en högre prevalens av otrygg anknytning (enligt testet ASQ) än normalbefolkningen. Metoden som har använts för att mäta detta är en internetbaserad självskattningsenkät; Attachment Style Questionnaire, ASQ, som är ett test som mäter olika kateogier av relationella mönster baserade på anknytningsteori. Testresultatet indikerar en hög förekomst av otrygg anknytning (95 %) i den undersökta gruppen. Med tanke på begränsningar I validiteten främst på grund av endast användningen av enbart ett test för mätning och på grund av att ASQ mäter relationella aspekter i en individ så undersöker studien först och främst resultatet av relationella mönster i gruppen ADHD. / This study aims is to explore if people diagnosed with ADHD show a higher frequency of insecure attachment (according to the test ASQ) than the normal population. The method used is an internet-based self report survey; Attachment Style Qeustionnaire, ASQ, which is a test that measures different categories of relational patterns based on attachment theory. The test results indicate a high frequency of insecure attachment scores (95%) in the measured sample. Regarding limitations in validity using only one method of measuring, and ASQ beeing a test for measuring relational patterns, the study only claim to present results of ”relational styles” in the AD/HD sample.

M.A. (Clinical Psychology) / Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a form of psychopathology characterised by difficulties with hyperactivity, attention and behavioural inhibition. Although ADHD has been historically considered a disorder specific to children, the contemporary consensus among researchers is that, in some cases, ADHD may persist into adulthood. Neurologically, ADHD is associated with deficits in the executive functions, located in the frontal lobe. Cortical arousal, which refers to the level of neuronal activity in the cerebral cortex and is measurable using electroencephalograph machinery (EEGs), is usually lower in the frontal lobes in those with ADHD when compared to individuals without the disorder. With regards to anxiety disorders, which are dysfunctional variations in the normal fear response, the aetiology of the pathologies in this category are multifaceted and complex. At the neurological level, however, there is a clear link between anxiety disorders and hypervigilance, which is characterised by high cortical arousal in the frontal lobes. Despite the fact that, at face value, it seems impossible for an increase and decrease in cortical arousal to occur simultaneously, ADHD is often diagnosed alongside anxiety disorders, and it is this anomaly which is the focus of this study. Electroencephalograph machinery (EEGs) are able to measure levels of cortical arousal using electrodes placed on the scalp. This research employs this equipment in order to elucidate on how cortical arousal manifests during a task that demands significant involvement from the frontal areas of the brain. A quasi-xperimental research design using non-parametric statistics (Mann-Whitney U Test) was used in order to compare the levels of cortical arousal between 4 groups of 5 research participants with either ADHD, an anxiety disorder, comorbid ADHD and anxiety and no discernible psychopathology. The significant results found in this study point to the fact that, in cases where ADHD and anxiety disorders occur comorbidly, there is a possibility that the anxiety component enables an individual to achieve more pronounced levels of attention, concentration and focus than normal participants and those with ADHD alone...

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This multi-method study provides detailed information about the friendships of 87 children with ADHD (77.0% boys) and 46 comparison children (73.9% boys) between the ages of 7 and 13. The methods used in the study included parent and teacher ratings, self-report measures, and direct observation of friends’ dyadic behaviours in three structured analogue tasks. Results indicated that, in contrast with comparison children, children with ADHD had friends with high levels of ADHD and oppositional symptoms; they perceived fewer positive features and more negative features, and were less satisfied in their friendships. Observational data indicated that children with ADHD performed both more legal and more illegal manoeuvres than comparison children in a fast-paced competitive game. While negotiating with their friends, children with ADHD made more insensitive and self-centred proposals than comparison children. In dyads consisting of one child with ADHD and one typically developing child, children with ADHD were often more controlling than their non-diagnosed friends. Globally, these results were robust and did not seem to be affected by age differences, ADHD subtypes, comorbidities, and medication status. Given the increased recognition of ADHD in adolescence and adulthood as well as the fact that negative peer reputation in childhood very strongly predicts mental-health status by early adulthood, this research may lead to the discovery of meaningful ways to help people with ADHD achieve improved mental health and happiness over their lifespan.

The current study is a multimethod, longitudinal exploration of friendship patterns of children with ADHD. We relied on information from parent and teacher ratings, self-report measures of children and their friends, and observational data from three interactive tasks. In the two phases of the study, the participants were 112 children and their friends between the ages of 7 and 13: ADHD group dyads, n = 68; comparison group dyads, n = 44. Results indicated that the friendships of children with ADHD differed from the friendships of the comparison group. Overall, children with ADHD had friendships that, although stable over time, were of lower duration and stability than the friendships of comparison children. The lower duration and stability of friendships in the ADHD group coincided with more single-parent households in this group, which may indicate elevated family stress. However, children with ADHD were no different than comparison children in regards to the age of their friends and the places where they met them. At both participations, ADHD dyads reported fewer positive friendship features than comparison dyads. Furthermore, children with ADHD reported less intimacy toward their friends, less help and guidance, and less validation and caring. The friendship behaviour dynamics observed during the interactive tasks differed between the two groups. Children with ADHD violated more rules and were less altruistic and sensitive during interactions. Additionally, children with ADHD showed less positive and more non-positive affect while relating to their friends. When a decision that involved a compromise had to be made, the length of interaction was greater and coincided with displayed non-positive affect. Additionally, their friendly interactions were observed to be characterized by unequal power distribution as opposed to those in the comparison group where there was greater power equality. However, our results also suggest that the behavioural trajectory over time was similar between the ADHD and comparison groups. The friendships of ADHD and comparison children were rich in positive and negative friendship features reported by the two friends, and over time there was more open reporting of the negative friendship aspects. Our results did not seem to be affected by gender and age differences, ADHD subtypes, comorbidities, or medication status. Through outlining friendship patterns of children with ADHD, we are hopeful that our findings may be useful to mitigate negative social consequences of ADHD. A practical clinical application may be in recommending measures and creating interventions aimed at promoting friendship and improving social adjustments in children and young adolescents with ADHD.

Maternal iron deficiency is a world wide and major public health issue. Despite recent researchers’ interest related to this topic, its impact in the offspring still remains unclear. The aim of this study is to understand the impact of maternal iron deficiency on the auditory functions and serum cortisol levels in the young and adult guinea pig at post-natal day (PNd) 24 and PNd84, respectively. Pregnant guinea pigs were given an iron deficient (ID) or iron sufficient (IS) diet during gestation and lactation. An iron sufficient diet was provided to all pups after weaning day. No significant difference was observed in the hearing threshold and latencies in siblings from both groups at PNd24 and PNd84. However, ID offspring showed a significant higher interpeak latency I-IV at 100 dB than IS pups at PNd24. ID offspring also had significant elevated cortisol levels at PNd24 compared to IS control group. Maternal iron deficiency affects negatively the auditory functions and raises the serum cortisol levels, a biomarker of stress in the offspring.

Maternal iron deficiency is a world wide and major public health issue. Despite recent researchers’ interest related to this topic, its impact in the offspring still remains unclear. The aim of this study is to understand the impact of maternal iron deficiency on the auditory functions and serum cortisol levels in the young and adult guinea pig at post-natal day (PNd) 24 and PNd84, respectively. Pregnant guinea pigs were given an iron deficient (ID) or iron sufficient (IS) diet during gestation and lactation. An iron sufficient diet was provided to all pups after weaning day. No significant difference was observed in the hearing threshold and latencies in siblings from both groups at PNd24 and PNd84. However, ID offspring showed a significant higher interpeak latency I-IV at 100 dB than IS pups at PNd24. ID offspring also had significant elevated cortisol levels at PNd24 compared to IS control group. Maternal iron deficiency affects negatively the auditory functions and raises the serum cortisol levels, a biomarker of stress in the offspring.

Thesis (M.A.)--Boston University / Background: In the past decade, a growing body of research has shown a link between attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and obesity. Recently, studies in adults and children began exploring the possible neurobiological and behavioral mechanisms responsible for the association of ADHD with obesity. Stimulant medications used to treat ADHD might also play a protective role against weight gain in individuals with ADHD. Objective: The current pilot study set out to create and test a protocol that explores differences in obesogenic eating behaviors between typically developing (TD) children and children with ADHD who are either taking ADHD medication (ADHD-M) or have been off of ADHD medication (ADHD-NM) for the past 3 months. Given that children with ADHD are often on medication, this pilot also allowed us the opportunity to assess the feasibility of recruiting children with ADHD-NM. Methods: The Children's Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (CEBQ) was used to measure eating behaviors between three groups of 6-11 year old children; TD (n=6), ADHD-M (n=9), and ADHD-NM (n=3). To our knowledge this is the first study to use the CEBQ as a measure of eating behaviors in children with ADHD. The protocol consisted of a telephone screen for inclusion and exclusion criteria, followed by one study visit where the CEBQ was administered along with 4 other questionnaires that will be analyzed as part of a larger study. Information was also collected on recruitment efforts, effectiveness of screening tools, and duration of study visit. Results: We found statistically significant differences in satiety responsiveness (p=0.008) among children with ADHD-M and ADHD-NM, and difference (p=0.022) among children with ADHD-M and typically developing (TD) in the desire to drink domain. We observed in the fussiness domain, borderline significant differences among children with ADHD-M and TD children (p=0.079) and in the emotional under-eating domain differences for children with ADHD-M and children with ADHD-NM (p=0.066). Also, there was a trend in the food responsiveness domain that suggested children with ADHD-NM were more responsive to food cues than the other two groups. There were no statistically significant differences seen between ADHD-NM and TD groups in the following three domains; slowness in eating, enjoyment of food, and emotional over-eating. As suspected, it was difficult to recruit children with ADHD-NM therefore; the small sample size may have limited our ability to detect significant differences. Conclusion: The pilot study showed statistically significant differences in one obesogenic CEBQ domain, satiety responsiveness, and a possible trend in the food responsiveness, which is another obesogenic domain. The differences suggest that children with ADHD-NM might be less responsive to internal satiety cues than children with ADHD-M, and more responsive to food cues than TD children or children with ADHD-M. The pilot also suggested differences between groups in three other domains; desire to drink, fussiness, and emotional undereating. Exploring these possible differences further could give insight into the mechanism contributing to the observed higher obesity risk in individuals with ADHD compared to individuals without ADHD.