This thesis presents results of a successful simulation study using CO2-EOR technique to enable production from an offshore heavy oil field, named here as Omega, which is located offshore West Africa at a water depth around 2000 m. The findings and contributions to knowledge are outlined below: 1. Long distance CO2 transportation offshore – The solution to the space and weight constraints offshore with respect to CO2-EOR, is a tie-back via long distance CO2 dense phase transportation from onshore to offshore. 2. Cold heavy oil production (CHOP) using CO2-EOR technique - Based on conditions investigated, Miscible Displacement was found to be more efficient for deepwater production. However, Immiscible Displacement can offer greater reliability with regards to CO2 sequestration. 3. CO2 sequestration during CHOP using CO2-EOR technique – Lower CO2 may be released post start-up operation, followed by gradual decline of CO2 retention after the production peak. CO2 retention increases with increasing reservoir pressure, starting with 17.7 % retention at 800 psig to 32.8 % at 5000 psig, based on peak production analysis. 4. Techno-economic Evaluation – Miscible displacement is asssociated with higher cash flow stream that extend throughout the lifetime of the asset due to continuous production while Immiscible Displacement has a longer payback period (in order of 22 years) due to the time lag between the CO2 injection and the incremental heavy oil production. 5. Mathematical Modelling – Improved mathematical models based on existing theories are proposed, to estimate the CO2 requirement and heavy oil production during CHOP using CO2-EOR technique, and to provide an operating envelope for a wide range of operating conditions. As part of further work, the proposed models will require more refinement and validation across a broad range of operating conditions, could be adapted and modified to increase its predictive capability over time.

Multiphase flow and transport in fractured rock is of importance to many practical and engineering applications. In the field of groundwater hydrology an issue of significant environmental concern is the release of dense non-aqueous phase liquids (DNAPLs) which can cause long-term groundwater contamination in fractured aquifers. This study deals with two fundamental processes – fluid displacement and interphase mass transfer – concerning the behavior of the multiphase contaminants in fractured media. The focus of this work has been placed on improving the current understanding of small-scale (single fracture) physics by a combined effort of numerical modeling analysis, laboratory experiments and model development. This thesis contributes to the improved understanding through several aspects. Firstly, the effect of aperture variability, as characterized by geostatistical parameters such as standard deviation and correlation length, on the DNAPL entrapment, dissolution and source-depletion behaviors in single fractures was revealed. Secondly, a novel, generalized approach (adaptive circle fitting approach) to account for the effect of in-plane curvature of fluid-fluid interfaces on immiscible fluid displacement was developed; the new approach has demonstrated good performance when applied to simulate previously published experimental data. Thirdly, the performance of a continuum-based two-phase flow model and an invasion percolation model was compared for modeling fluid displacement in a variable-aperture fracture and the dependence of fracture-scale capillary pressure – saturation relationships on aperture variability was studied. Lastly, through experimental studies and mechanistic numerical modeling of DNAPL dissolution, kinetic mass transfer characteristics of two different entrapment configurations (residual blobs and dead-end pools) were investigated. The obtained understanding from this thesis will be useful for predictive modeling of multiphase contaminant behavior at a larger (fracture network) scale. / Flerfasflöde och ämnestransport i sprickigt berg är av betydelse för många praktiska och tekniska problem. Tunga, svårlösliga organiska vätskor (engelska: dense non-aqueous phase liquids: DNAPLs; t.ex. klorerade lösningsmedel) kan orsaka långvarig förorening av vattenresurser, inklusive akviferer i sprickigt berg, och utgör ett viktigt miljöproblem inom grundvattenhydrologin. Denna studie behandlar två fundamentala processer för spridning av flerfasföroreningar i sprickiga medier – utbredning av den organiska vätskan och massöverföring mellan organisk vätska och vatten. Arbetet har fokuserat på att förbättra nuvarande kunskap om de fysikaliska processerna på liten skala (enskilda sprickor) genom en kombination av numerisk modellering, laboratorieexperiment och modellutveckling. Avhandlingen har bidragit till utökad processförståelse i flera avseenden. För det första har arbetet belyst effekterna av sprickaperturens variabilitet, uttryckt med geostatistiska parametrar som standardavvikelse och rumslig korrelationslängd, på fastläggning och lösning av organiska vätskor i enskilda sprickor, samt utmattningsbeteendet hos dessa källor till grundvattenförorening. För det andra har en ny, generell metod (adaptiva cirkelpassningsmetoden) för att ta hänsyn till effekten av krökningen av gränsytan mellan organisk vätska och vatten i sprickplanet utvecklats; denna metod har visats fungera väl i simuleringar av tidigare publicerade experimentella data. För det tredje, har en jämförelse gjorts mellan en kontinuumbaserad tvåfasflödesmodell och en invasions-perkolationsmodell med avseende på hur väl de kan simulera tvåfasflöde i en spricka med varierande apertur. Här studerades även hur relationen mellan kapillärtryck och mättnadsgrad på sprickplansskala beror av variabiliteten i sprickapertur. Till sist undersöktes lösning av den organiska vätskan i grundvatten för två fastläggningsscenarier (fastläggning i immobila droppar och ansamling i fällor – ”återvändssprickor”) både genom experiment och mekanistisk numerisk modellering. Kunskapen som tagits fram i denna avhandling bedöms vara användbar även för att modellera spridningen av flerfasföroreningar på större (spricknätverks-) skalor.

[pt] A eficiência do processo de injeção de água, o método de recuperação secundária mais comum na indústria do petróleo, é limitada por seu padrão de varredura não uniforme, originado da formação de caminhos preferenciais devido à alta razão de mobilidade entre água e óleo, e a elevada saturação de óleo residual, associada aos efeitos capilares. A fim de melhorar a recuperação de petróleo, diferentes abordagens têm sido sugeridas na literatura, com algumas delas baseadas no bloqueio de poros e consequente desvio de água, varrendo assim uma área maior do reservatório e deslocando mais do óleo aprisionado por capilaridade. O bloqueio de poros pode ser realizado com diferentes métodos, sendo um deles a injeção de emulsão, com a fase dispersa, composta por gotas de óleo, atuando como o agente responsável pela diminuição da mobilidade da fase aquosa. Neste trabalho, os mecanismos fundamentais do processo de injeção de emulsão foram estudados experimentalmente, visualizando-se o escoamento em escala de poros em um dispositivo micro-fluídico de vidro composto por uma rede de canais constritos, que modela as principais características de um meio poroso. Os resultados mostram o efeito do tamanho da gota e do número de capilaridade no padrão do escoamento, no tamanho dos gânglios do óleo aprisionado e na recuperação de óleo residual. / [en] The efficiency of water flooding, the most common secondary recovery method in the oil industry, is limited by its non-uniform sweep pattern, originating from the formation of preferential paths because of the high mobility ratio between water and oil, and the high residual oil saturation, associated with capillary oil trapping. In order to improve oil recovery, different approaches have been suggested in the literature, with some of them based on pore blocking and consequent water diversion, thus sweeping a bigger area of the reservoir and displacing more of the trapped oil. Pore blockage can be performed with different methods, one of which is emulsion flooding, with the disperse phase, composed by oil drops, acting as the agent responsible for the decreased water phase mobility. In this work, the fundamental mechanisms of emulsion flooding process was studied experimentally, by visualizing the pore-scale flow in a glass microfluidic device composed of a network of constricted channels, that models the main features of a porous media. The results show the effect of drop size and capillary number on the flow pattern, trapped oil ganglia size and residual oil recovery.

[pt] O escoamento de emulsões é encontrado em diversos processos de recuperação e produção de petróleo. O escoamento de emulsões em meios porosos depende de diversos parâmetros como a relação do tamanho das gotas ao tamanho dos poros, a razão de viscosidades, a vazão volumétrica e o efeito destes parâmetros ainda não é bem compreendido. Uma análise detalhada na escala microscópica dos fenômenos envolvidos se faz essencial para a melhora do entendimento completo do escoamento de emulsões em um reservatório. Isto permitiria o desenvolvimento de melhores modelos de simulação para o escoamento multifísico em meios porosos. Neste trabalho, o escoamento de emulsões óleo-água através de um capilar com garganta foi estudado através de experimentos e teoria. A análise experimental consistiu da visualização sob um microscópio do escoamento e da medição da queda de pressão em função da vazão para diferentes emulsões. A análise teórica englobou o estudo do escoamento em regime permanente de uma gota de óleo imersa em água através de um capilar e o estudo do escoamento transiente da mesma gota através de um capilar com uma garganta. Os resultados mostram que os modelos de escoamento de emulsões em meios porosos não devem ser baseados em propriedades macroscópicas da emulsão quando o tamanho das gotas da fase dispersa for da mesma ordem de grandeza do tamanho dos poros. Neste caso, a queda de pressão é função da tensão interfacial, a razão de viscosidades, a vazão e a razão entre o tamanho das gotas e o diâmetro do poro. Os resultados apresentados neste trabalho podem ser usados no projeto de emulsões apropriadas para controle de mobilidade em operações de recuperação avançada através de injeção de emulsões. / [en] Flow of emulsions is found in many petroleum recovery and production processes and it is often referred to in the context of tertiary oil recovery. The characteristics of emulsion flow in porous media depend on several parameters such as medium drop size to pore size ratio, viscosity ratio, flow rate and the effect of these parameters is far from being entirely understood. A detailed analysis at a microscopic scale of the flow is essential to improve the understanding of flow of an emulsion in a reservoir. This would lead to the development of better simulation models, henceforth increasing the predictability capability of reservoir simulators for enhanced oil recovery applications. In this work, flow of oil-water emulsions through constricted capillaries, used as model for the geometry inside a porous media, is studied experimentally and theoretically. The experimental approach consisted of measuring pressure drop response as a function of flow rate for different emulsions and visualizing the flow under an optical microscope to understand the phenomena involved. The theoretical approach is divided in two parts. First, the immiscible steady flow of a infinite single drop suspended in an less viscous fluid through a capillary was analyzed by solving the Navier- Stokes equations with the appropriate boundary conditions for free-surface flow. The second part of the theoretical analysis consisted of solving the transient flow of a drop suspended in a less viscous fluid through a capillary with a constriction. It is shown the effect of capillary number and viscosity ratio over the main responses of the flow. The results show that models of emulsion flow in a porous media cannot be based on the macroscopic properties of the emulsion when the drop diameter is of the same order of magnitude as the pore throat diameter. In this case flow rate-pressure drop is a strong function of the interfacial tension, viscosity ratio, flow rate and drop to pore size ratio. The results can be used to design appropriate emulsions to control the water mobility during EOR operations by emulsion injection.

[pt] A compreensão dos mecanismos e fenômenos de transporte relacionados ao fluxo multifásico em meios porosos é de grande relevância para diversas aplicações práticas como captura e sequestro de dióxido de carbono, transporte em células de combustível e recuperação avançada de reservatórios de hidrocarbonetos. A geometria do espaço poroso e as interações dos fluidos com sua parte sólida determinam propriedades macroscópicas como porosidade, permeabilidades relativas e pressão capilar. Porém, a visão em escala microscópica fornece uma melhor descrição e entendimento dos processos físicos e químicos do escoamento de fluidos no espaço poroso. Neste trabalho desenvolvemos um simulador de rede de poros para análise do escoamento bifásico de fluidos imiscíveis tanto para o processo de drenagem quanto para o de embebição. O modelo de rede 240×40 tem capilares com raios médios na ordem de 52.35 micrometro com constrição. Os padrões de escoamento e eficiências de deslocamento foram obtidos para diferentes razões de viscosidade e números de capilaridade. Os resultados encontrados, considerando deslocamento pistão, foram similares a de experimentos realizados previamente, injetando água no meio saturado de óleo. Na drenagem, a saturação residual de óleo cai com o aumento do número de capilaridade. O padrão de escoamento observado é de fingerings viscosos e, a frente de deslocamento torna-se mais estável com o aumento da razão de viscosidade. Na embebição, para números de capilaridade mais baixos, o escoamento foi dominado por fingers capilares. Para números de capilaridade altos, fingers viscosos foram predominantes e, com o aumento da razão de viscosidade, a frente apresentou maior estabilidade. / [en] Understanding the mechanisms and transport phenomena of multiphase flow in porous media has great relevance in several practical applications, such as capture and sequestration of carbon dioxide, transport in fuel cells and enhancement hydrocarbon recovery. The geometry of pore space and the fluid interactions with the solid determine macroscopic properties such as porosity, relative permeabilities and capillary pressure. However, microscopic analysis provides a better description and comprehension of physical and chemical processes of fluid flow in the pore space. In this work, we developed a pore-network simulator to analyze immiscible two-phase flow for both drainage and imbibition processes. The 240×40 pore-network model has constricted capillary channels with radius on the order of 52.35 micrometer. Flow patterns and displacement efficiencies evaluation were obtained at different viscosity ratios and capillary numbers. The results, considering piston-like displacement, were similar to experiments realized previously, injecting water in an oil saturated medium. In the drainage process, the oil saturation reduces with increasing capillary number. The observed flow pattern is viscous fingerings and the front is stable with the higher viscosity ratio. In imbibition, the flow was dominated by capillary fingers at low capillary numbers. At high capillary numbers, viscous fingers were predominant and, with increasing viscosity ratio, the front presented higher stability.