The identification and quantification of atoms, molecules, or ions concentrations in gaseous samples are in great demand for medical, environmental, industrial, law enforcement and national security applications. These applications require in situ, high-resolution, non-destructive, sensitive, miniature, inexpensive, rapid detection, remotely accessed, real time and continuously operating chemical sensing devices. The aim of this work is to design a miniature optical sensing device that is capable of detecting and measuring chemical species, compatible with being integrated into a large variety of monitoring systems, and durable enough to be used under extreme conditions. The miniature optical sensor has been realized by employing technologies from the optical communication industry and spectroscopic methods and techniques. Fused silica capillary tubing along with standard communication optical fibers have been utilized to make miniature gas sensor based on near-infrared spectroscopy for acetylene gas detection. In this work, the basic principles of infrared spectroscopy are reviewed. Also, the principle of operation, fabrication, testing, and analysis of the proposed sensor are discussed in details. / Master of Science

Le cadre général dans lequel s’insère ce travail de thèse est celui de l’étude de la diffusion Brillouin dans une nouvelle génération de fibres optiques à cristaux photoniques (PCFs). Ces fibres, qui présentent un arrangement périodique de micro-canaux d’air parallèles le long de la fibre, possèdent en effet des propriétés optiques et acoustiques remarquables et inédites par rapport aux fibres conventionnelles. De façon plus précise, nous montrons dans ce travail, par le biais de simulations numériques et de données expérimentales, que les fibres à cristaux photoniques offrent la possibilité de supprimer ou, à contrario, augmenter les interactions entre les photons et les phonons. Dans une première partie, nous présentons une méthode de cartographie des fluctuations longitudinales de la microstructure des fibres PCFs à l’aide d’un capteur distribué basé sur une méthode innovante d’écho Brillouin. Cette méthode, très sensible et à haute résolution, est directement intéressante pour caractériser et améliorer l’uniformité des PCFs lors de leur fabrication et également pour la détection des différentes contraintes de température et étirement induites le long des fibres. Sur le plan fondamental, notre système de mesure distribuée à haute résolution nous a également permis d’observer, pour la première fois à notre connaissance, le temps de vie des ondes acoustiques dans les fibres à cristaux photoniques et les fibres standard. Par ailleurs, sur le plan technique, nous avons développé une architecture simplifiée de capteur distribué combinant la technique des échos Brillouin et celle de la modulation différentielle par déplacement de phase avec un seul modulateur d’intensité. Nos résultats montrent une résolution centimétrique dans la zone de soudure entre deux fibres optiques à l’aide d’une impulsion de phase de 500 ps. Nous démontrons dans une deuxième partie la suppression directe et passive de la rétrodiffusion Brillouin stimulée dans une fibre optique micro structurée en faisant varier périodiquement le diamètre de la microstructure. Une augmentation de 4 dB du seuil de puissance Brillouin a été obtenue avec une variation de seulement 7% sur une période de 30m. Ce résultat est très intéressant car la diffusion Brillouin est un facteur limitant dans les systèmes de télécommunications par fibre optique et les lasers à fibre. La troisième et dernière partie est consacrée à l’étude numérique et expérimentale de la diffusion Brillouin en avant dans les fibres à cristaux photoniques. En plus de la suppression de la plupart des modes acoustiques transverses, nous montrons que cette diffusion Brillouin est fortement augmentée pour certains modes acoustiques à haute fréquence qui sont piégés au cœur de la microstructure. Nous avons également étudié une fibre à structure multi-échelle qui révèle l’excitation sélective de plusieurs phonons acoustiques à des fréquences allant jusqu’a 2GHz. Ces mesures ont étés confirmées par des simulations numériques basées sur une méthode vectorielle aux éléments finis. L’impact des irrégularités de la microstructure a aussi été mis en évidence.Mots clés : optique non linéaire, diffusion Brillouin, fibres optiques microstructurées, seuil Brillouin, capteurs Brillouin distribués. / Brillouin scattering is a fundamental nonlinear opto-acoustic interaction present in optical fibers with important implications in fields ranging from modern telecommunication networks to smart optical fiber sensors. This thesis is aimed at providing a comprehensive theoretical and experimental investigation of both forward and backward Brillouin scattering in next generation photonic crystal fibers in view of potential applications to above mentioned fields. We show in particular that these micro-structured optical fibers have the remarkable ability to either suppress or enhance photon-phonon interactions compared to what is commonly observed in conventional fibers. Firstly, this thesis provides a complete experimental characterization of several photonic crystal fibers using a novel highly-resolved distributed sensing technique based on Brillouin echoes. We perform distributed measurements that show both short-scale and long-scale longitudinal fluctuations of the periodic wavelength-scale air-hole microstructure along the fibers. Our mapping technique is very sensitive to structural irregularities and thus interesting for fiber manufacturers to characterize and improve the fiber uniformity during the drawing process. With this technique, we also report the first experimental observationof the acoustic decay time and the Brillouin linewidth broadening in both standard and photonic crystal fibers. Furthermore, we experimentally demonstrate a simplified architecture of our Brillouin echoes-based distributed optical fiber sensor with centimeter spatial resolution. It is based on differential phase-shift keying technique using a single Mach-Zehnder modulator to generate a pump pulse and a _-phase-shifted pulse with an easy and accurate adjustment of delay. These sensing techniques are also applied to distributed strain measurement. Another aspect of this thesis is the investigation of a novel method for suppressing stimulated Brillouin scattering that is detrimental to optical fiber transmissions and fiber lasers. We experimentally study several fibers and a demonstrate 4 dB increase of the Brillouin threshold in a photonic crystal fiber by varying periodically the core diameter by only7%. The efficiency of this passive technique is verified by use of our distributed sensing technique where the oscillating Brillouin frequency shift is clearly observed.Lastly, we present experimental and numerical results demonstrating the simultaneous vi Abstract frequency-selective excitation of several guided acoustic Brillouin modes in a photonic crystal fiber with a multi-scale structure design. These guided acoustic modes are identified by using a full vector finite-element model to result from elastic radial vibrations confined by the air-silica microstructure. We further show the strong impact of structural irregularities of the fiber on the frequency and modal shape of these acoustic resonances

The diploma thesis focuses on optical fiber sensors with detailed preview of the turbidity sensor, its design and testing. The introduction deals with the general theory of fiber sensors and measurement methodology of physical variables. This part is followed by a charter focusing on the possible ways of measuring turbidity. Furthermore, the diploma thesis introduces design of the new turbidity sensor which is realized with consideration of the industrial usage and future application to the automated process of beer production. It also includes a detailed description of the hardware and software sensors created within this thesis. The last section is devoted to a calibration and testing functionality of turbidity sensor.

O trabalho tem por objetivo o estudo e o desenvolvimento de interferômetros recuperadores com baixa tensão de meia onda utilizando moduladores eletro-ópticos para serem aplicados em sistemas Interferométricos de luz branca. Ele dá continuidade às pesquisas do autor em seu mestrado, em que foi desenvolvido e testado um sistema de sensoriamento eletro-óptico capaz de medir diretamente tensões de até 69,4 kVRMS. Desta forma aperfeiçoa-se o sistema de processamento de sinais ópticos desenvolvendo um novo interferômetro recuperador, baseado em óptica integrada. Para o desenvolvimento do tema proposto, inicialmente foi feito uma revisão da literatura/bibliografia, baseada em livros, artigos e teses, visando identificar o \"estado da arte\" relacionado aos moduladores eletro-ópticos para definir o tipo de modulador mais adequado à aplicação em vista. O estudo resultou na escolha de um componente em óptica integrada que foi aplicado numa configuração inédita em um protótipo de transformador de potencial óptico para medição de elevados níveis de tensão elétrica. As características de desempenho deste protótipo foram comparadas com as do protótipo previamente construído. Como resultado deste trabalho, amplia-se o conhecimento e fixa-se em âmbito nacional o domínio sobre as técnicas de construção de interferômetros recuperadores baseados em óptica integrada aplicáveis à recuperação de sinais ópticos em sistemas interferométricos para medição de altas tensões. / This work has as objective the study and development of low half-wave voltage recovery interferometers using electro-optical modulators to be applied to white light interferometric systems. This work is a continuation in the research carried out by the author to obtain his master degree, in which it was developed and tested an electro- optic sensing system capable to measure direct voltage to 69.4 kVrms. In the present work the optical signals processing system is improved by developing a new recovery interferometer based on integrated optics. To develop the proposed subject, initially a review of the literature, based on books, articles and thesis, has been done aiming to identify the State of the Art related to electro-optic modulators and helping to define the most suitable type of modulator for the desired application. The study resulted in the selection of an integrated optical device arranged in an unpublished configuration that was applied to a prototype of optical voltage transformer, intended to measure high voltage levels. The performance of this prototype was compared with a previous version. The results of this work increase the knowledge of the construction techniques of recovery interferometers based on integrated optic devices applicable to the recovering of optical signals in interferometric systems for high voltage measurement.

O trabalho tem por objetivo o estudo e o desenvolvimento de interferômetros recuperadores com baixa tensão de meia onda utilizando moduladores eletro-ópticos para serem aplicados em sistemas Interferométricos de luz branca. Ele dá continuidade às pesquisas do autor em seu mestrado, em que foi desenvolvido e testado um sistema de sensoriamento eletro-óptico capaz de medir diretamente tensões de até 69,4 kVRMS. Desta forma aperfeiçoa-se o sistema de processamento de sinais ópticos desenvolvendo um novo interferômetro recuperador, baseado em óptica integrada. Para o desenvolvimento do tema proposto, inicialmente foi feito uma revisão da literatura/bibliografia, baseada em livros, artigos e teses, visando identificar o \"estado da arte\" relacionado aos moduladores eletro-ópticos para definir o tipo de modulador mais adequado à aplicação em vista. O estudo resultou na escolha de um componente em óptica integrada que foi aplicado numa configuração inédita em um protótipo de transformador de potencial óptico para medição de elevados níveis de tensão elétrica. As características de desempenho deste protótipo foram comparadas com as do protótipo previamente construído. Como resultado deste trabalho, amplia-se o conhecimento e fixa-se em âmbito nacional o domínio sobre as técnicas de construção de interferômetros recuperadores baseados em óptica integrada aplicáveis à recuperação de sinais ópticos em sistemas interferométricos para medição de altas tensões. / This work has as objective the study and development of low half-wave voltage recovery interferometers using electro-optical modulators to be applied to white light interferometric systems. This work is a continuation in the research carried out by the author to obtain his master degree, in which it was developed and tested an electro- optic sensing system capable to measure direct voltage to 69.4 kVrms. In the present work the optical signals processing system is improved by developing a new recovery interferometer based on integrated optics. To develop the proposed subject, initially a review of the literature, based on books, articles and thesis, has been done aiming to identify the State of the Art related to electro-optic modulators and helping to define the most suitable type of modulator for the desired application. The study resulted in the selection of an integrated optical device arranged in an unpublished configuration that was applied to a prototype of optical voltage transformer, intended to measure high voltage levels. The performance of this prototype was compared with a previous version. The results of this work increase the knowledge of the construction techniques of recovery interferometers based on integrated optic devices applicable to the recovering of optical signals in interferometric systems for high voltage measurement.

Aujourd’hui, trois technologies distinctes et complémentaires sont disponibles pour réaliser des mesures réparties de température, de déformation ou de vibration grâce à l’analyses des rétrodiffusion Raman, Brillouin et Rayleigh. Les besoins industriels actuels se portent sur la mesure répartie de déformation pour des infrastructures avec de longs linéaires, comme les canalisations, pour lesquelles une cartographie linéaire et en temps réel de leur état est demandée. Nous nous focalisons alors sur la conception d’un système de mesure Brillouin capable de mesurer de manière répartie et dynamique les déformations subies par une fibre optique. La méthode employée sera celle du flanc de frange ; elle a déjà été développée et expérimentée sur une architecture opto-électronique de type analyseur Brillouin (Brillouin-OTDA), nécessitant l’accès aux deux extrémités de la fibre optique. Dans notre cas, elle est implémentée sur une architecture fonctionnant en réflectométrie. Les résultats expérimentaux obtenus seront caractérisés et validés par la simulation des mesures de la déformation et du déplacement d’une canalisation supportée entre deux appuis simples ; un modèle mécanique, adapté à cette configuration et transposable sur des projets réels, est développé. Par le biais de partenaire industriels de Cementys, ce modèle est utilisé dans deux projets de surveillance de canalisation d’hydrocarbures dont les moyens d’installation et la finalité sont différents. / Today, three distinct and complementary technologies are available for distributed temperature, strain or vibration measurements with the analysis of Raman, Brillouin and Rayleigh backscattered light. Current industrial needs are distributed strain measurements for linear infrastructures, such as pipelines, for which linear and real-time strain distribution is required. The research work aims to design a new distributed and dynamic strain measurement system based on the analysis of spontaneous Brillouin backscatter by reflectometry. Slope assisted technique is used to accelerate the measurement acquisition, currently limited to static events because of their actual principle of sweep frequency acquisition of the Brillouin backscattering spectrum. The experimental results are characterized and validated by the simulation of the measurements of the deformation and displacement of a pipe supported between two simple supports. A mechanical model, adapted to this configuration and transposable on real projects, is developed. Through Cementys industrial partner, this model is then used for two monitoring project of pipelines with different installation facilities and purpose.

[ES] Las fibras ópticas son dispositivos muy utilizados en el campo de las telecomunicaciones desde su descubrimiento. En las últimas décadas, las fibras ópticas comenzaron a utilizarse como sensores fotónicos. Los primeros trabajos se centraron en la medición de unas dimensiones físicas en un punto específico. Posteriormente, surgió la posibilidad de medir las propiedades de la fibra óptica en diferentes puntos a lo largo de la fibra. Este tipo de sensores se definen como sensores distribuidos. Los componentes optoelectrónicos fueron desarrollados e investigados para telecomunicaciones. Los avances en las telecomunicaciones hicieron posible el desarrollo de sistemas de interrogación para sensores de fibra óptica, creciendo en paralelo con los avances de las telecomunicaciones. Se desarrollaron sistemas de interrogación de fibra óptica que permiten el uso de una única fibra óptica monomodo estándar como sensor que puede monitorear decenas de miles de puntos de detección al mismo tiempo. Los métodos que extraen la información de detección de la señal reflejada en la fibra óptica son los más empleados debido a la facilidad de acceso al sensor y la flexibilidad de estos sistemas. Los más estudiados son la reflectometría en dominios de tiempo y frecuencia. La reflectometría óptica en el dominio del tiempo (OTDR) fue la primera técnica utilizada para detectar la posición de los fallos en las redes de comunica-ción de fibra óptica. El OTDR sensible a la fase hizo posible detectar la elongación y la temperatura en una posición específica. Paralelamente, los gratings de Bragg (FBG) se convirtieron en los dispositivos más utilizados para implementar sensores en fibra óptica discretos. Se desarrollaron técnicas de multiplexación para realizar la detección en múltiples puntos utilizando FGBs. La reflectometría realizada interrogando arrays de FBG débiles demuestra que mejora el rendimiento del sistema en comparación al uso de una fibra monomodo. Los sistemas de interrogatorio actuales tienen algunos inconvenientes. Algunos de ellos son velocidad de interrogatorio limitada, grandes dimensiones y alto costo. En esta tesis doctoral se desarrollaron nuevos sistemas de interrogación y sensores de fibra óptica para superar algunos de estos inconvenientes. Los sensores de fibra óptica de plástico demuestran ser una plataforma innovadora para desarrollar nuevos sensores y sistemas de interrogación de bajo costo y fáciles de implementar para fibras de plástico comerciales. Se investigó la reflectometría en el dominio del tiempo y las técnicas fotónicas de microondas para la interrogación de una matriz de rejillas débiles que permitieron simplificar el sistema de interrogación para la detección de temperatura y vibración. / [CA] Les fibres òptiques són dispositius molt utilitzats en el camp de les telecomunica-cions des del seu descobriment. En les últimes dècades, les fibres òptiques van començar a utilitzar-se com a sensors fotònics. Els primers treballs es van centrar en el mesurament d'unes dimensions físiques en un punt específic. Posteriorment, va sorgir la possibilitat de mesurar les propietats de la fibra òptica en diferents punts al llarg de la fibra. Aquest tipus de sensors es defineixen com a sensors distribüits. Els components optoelectrònics van ser desenvolupats i investigats per a telecomunicacions. Els avanços en les telecomunicacions van fer possi-ble el desenvolupament de sistemes d'interrogació per a sensors de fibra òptica, creixent en paral·lel amb els avanços de les telecomunicacions. Es van desenvolupar sistemes d'interrogació de fibra òptica que permeten l'ús d'una única fibra òptica monomodo estàndard com a sensor que pot monitorar desenes de milers de punts de detecció al mateix temps. Els mètodes que extreuen la informació de detecció del senyal reflectit en la fibra òptica són els més utilitzats a causa de la facilitat d'accés al sensor i la flexibilitat d'aquests sistemes. Els més estudiats són la reflectometría en dominis de temps i freqüència. La reflectometría òptica en el domini del temps (OTDR) va ser la primera tècnica utilitzada per a detectar la posició de les fallades en les xarxes de comunicació de fibra òptica. El OTDR sensible a la fase va fer possible detectar l'elongació i la temperatura en una posició específica. Paral·lelament, els gratings de Bragg (FBG) es van convertir en els dispositius més utilitzats per a implementar sensors en fibra òptica discrets. Es van desenvolupar tècniques de multiplexació per a realitzar la detecció en múltiples punts utilitzant FGBs. La reflectometría realitzada interrogant arrays de FBG febles demostra que millora el rendiment del sistema en comparació a l'ús d'una fibra monomodo. Els sistemes d'interrogatori actuals tenen alguns inconvenients. Alguns d'ells són velocitat d'interrogatori limitada, voluminositat i alt cost. En aquesta tesi doctoral es van desenvolupar nous sistemes d'interrogació i sensors de fibra òptica per a superar alguns d'aquests inconvenients. Els sensors de fibra òptica de plàstic demostren ser una plataforma innovadora per a desenvolupar nous sensors i siste-mes d'interrogació de baix cost i fàcils d'implementar per a fibres de plàstic comercials. Es va investigar la reflectometría en el domini del temps i les tècniques fotòniques de microones per a la interrogació d'una matriu de reixetes febles que van permetre simplificar el sistema d'interrogació per a la detecció de temperatura i vibració. / [EN] Optical fibers are devices largely used in telecommunication field since their discovery. In the last decades, optical fibers started to be used as photonic sensors. The first works were focused on the measurement of physical dimensions to a specific point. Afterward, emerged the possibility to measure the optical fiber properties at different locations along the fiber. These kinds of sensors are defined as distributed sensors. The optoelectronic components were developed and investigated for telecommunications. The progress in telecommunication made possible the development of optical fiber sensors interrogation systems, growing in parallel with the advances of telecommunications. Optical fiber interrogation systems were developed to use a single standard monomode optical fiber as a sensor that can monitor tens of thousands of sensing points at the same time. The methods that extract the sensing information from the backscattered signal in the optical fiber are widely employed because of the easiness of access to the sensor element and the flexibility of these systems. The most studied are the reflectometry in time and frequency domains. The optical time domain reflectometry (OTDR) was the first technique used to detect the position of the failures in the optical fiber communication networks. Using phase sensitive OTDR it is possible to sense strain and temperature at a specific position. In parallel, fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs) became the most widely used devices to implement discrete optical fiber sensors. Multiplexing techniques were developed to perform multi points sensing using these gratings. The reflectometry performed interrogating weak FBGs arrays demonstrate to improve the performance of the system employing a single mode fiber. The interrogation systems nowadays have some drawbacks. Some of them are limited speed of interrogation, bulkiness, and high cost. New interrogation systems and optical fiber sensors were developed in this doctoral thesis to overcome some of these drawbacks. Plastic optical fiber sensors demonstrate to be an innovative platform to develop both new sensors and low cost, easy to implement interrogation systems for commercial plastic fibers. Reflectometry in time domain and microwave photonic techniques were investigated for the interrogation of weak gratings array allowed to simplify the interrogation system for the sensing of temperature and vibration. / I would like to greatly thank the European Union’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Program that funded the research described in this thesis under the Marie Sklodowska-Curie Action Grant Agreement 722509. / Sartiano, D. (2021). Design of optical fiber sensors and interrogation schemes [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/161357