Bicontinuous Pickering emulsions (or bijels) are a relatively new class of novel soft material with many potential industrial applications, including microfluidics, tissue engineering and catalysis. They are typically formed by initiating the spinodal decomposition of a binary liquid mixture in the presence of neutrally-wetting colloidal particles. The particles attach at the liquid-liquid interface and arrest the phase separation by jamming when the concentration of particles approaches the 2D close-packing limit. Predicted by simulations in 2005 and realized in the laboratory in 2007, many aspects of the bijels complex behaviour and properties have remained unexplored. This thesis expands the knowledge of the bijels structural and dynamical properties, while focusing specifically on the role of particle size. The bijels porosity (average interfacial separation L) according to simulations can be controlled by varying the size r and volume fraction ϕ of particles in the system (L ∝ r/ϕ). The inverse scaling of L with ϕ has been verified for one size of particle, but to access smaller values of L (to allow the structure to be used for a wider range of industrial applications) the scaling with r must be tested. Chapter 3 presents the first systematic study of reducing particle size in bijels made with the liquid pair water/lutidine (W/L).We find that a five-fold reduction in r only requires moderate modification to preparation methods (concentrations of reactants during particle synthesis and increased particle sonication time) and in principle allows L values of between 1 & 10 μm to be accessed in the W/L system, where previously 10 μm was the limit. We demonstrate that this reduced lower bound of L can be translated into a lower bound for polymerized bijels also. Unfortunately, reducing particle size even further (in the same way) reveals a law of diminishing returns, as the uptake fraction of particles to the interface also reduces as we reduce particle size. Hence, to reduce lengthscale even further, a new bijel fabrication paradigm is required. Unexpectedly, we find that the temperature quench rate becomes less important for smaller particles (which constitutes a direct material synthesis advantage) and develop a new theoretical framework to take account of this observation. Large particles promote domain pinch-off during the coarsening (due to a larger driving force towards spontaneous curvature) resulting in bijel failure when slow rates are used because the time required to jam is greater than the time required for depercolation. To further probe the bijels structure as a function of particle size and quench rate, and to account for the success/failure scenarios which seem not to depend on L, in Chapter 4 we quantitatively characterize the morphology by measuring distributions of interfacial curvatures. By computing area-averaged quantities to make valid comparisons, we find that smaller particles and faster quench rates produce bijels with greater hyperbolic `open' character, aligning with our understanding of bijel formation gained from Chapter 3. We compare to simulated bijel data and an estimate of the hyperbolicity of the bare liquids undergoing spinodal decomposition, validating the results. In addition, we uncover a time-dependent `mutation' of the curvature distributions when large particles are used, but not when smaller particles or a different liquid pair is used. The mutation appears to correlate with the propensity of the interfacial particles to form a 'monogel', whereby the interfacial particles develop permanent bonds and remain as a 3D percolating network after the interface is removed, although the precise mechanism of the mutation is still to be verified. Following the results from Chapters 3 & 4 it is clear that there are potentially microscopic phenomena in the bijel which result in macroscopic aging and/or a determination of macroscopic structural properties. To investigate further, we use diffusing-wave spectroscopy (a form of light scattering) to probe the microscopic dynamics of the interfacial particles and/or the particle-laden liquid-liquid (L-L) interface. We find that bijel dynamics show two-step (fast/slow) decay behaviour, with the dynamics slowing as the system ages. The two-step decay is very similar to that observed in colloidal gels formed by diffusion-limited cluster aggregation (DLCA), with the initial (fast) decay due to thermally-activated modes of the gel network, and the later (slow) decay due to the relaxation of internal stresses induced by gel syneresis. For a bijel, the internal stresses could be due to syneresis, but could also be due to the jamming transition and/or the monogelation process and/or the forces acting on the L-L interface by the particle layer. In terms of the aging, if the system does not form a monogel, the correlation functions can be (almost) rescaled on to a master curve, indicating the property of universal aging. If the system does monogel, the functions cannot be superimposed, implicating the monogelation process as a potential cause for a different kind of aging in this system. Due to the interesting differences found when changing the size of the stabilizing particles in a bijel, in Chapter 6 we combine large and small particles (making `bimodal' bijels) and look for evidence of particle segregation by size, quantitatively estimate the ratio of particle uptake fractions and measure kinetics. Larger particles are found to adsorb to the interface in twice the quantity as smaller particles, and we find evidence to suggest the preference of larger particles for interfaces curved in only one direction, corroborating results from previous Chapters. Bimodal bijels take longer to jam than an equivalent monomodal (standard) bijel, which is backed up by simulations and highlights the increased ability of the bimodal particles to reorganise at the interface before arriving at the jammed metastable state. Finally, we also observe that the lengthscale of a bimodal bijel can heavily depend on the quench rate used during the preparation, suggesting that quench rate could be used (as well as particle size, volume fraction and contact angle) as a lengthscale control parameter. This thesis adds to the bijel literature, building on previous experimental studies and verifying/contradicting simulations. Particle size is shown to be a pivotal parameter for bijel formation in the W/L system, with particles of size r = 63 nm proving more versatile (markedly less sensitive to quench rate) than particles of size r ≈ 300 nm. However, even-smaller particles (of the same type) do not provide any additional advantage. We also show how the particle size can not only control bijel porosity (according to L ∝ r/ϕ as predicted by simulations) but can control bijel topology (smaller particles result in structures with greater hyperbolic character). By monitoring the bijel structure over time (topology and dynamics) we have shown that the bijel (in some cases) continues to age for at least c. 1 hr (topology) and in all cases c. 1 day (dynamics). For the first time experimentally, we have used a bimodal dispersion of particles to stabilize a W/L bijel and have uncovered a potentially useful new way to produce samples with different porosities from the same starting mixture, by changing the quench rate. The knowledge of the interplay between particle size and quench rate along with the effect on bijel topology will both assist in the scaling up of processes for industrial-level production and inform future strategies for tailoring the structure for specific applications. Future research should focus on several remaining open questions. The volume fraction of r = 63 nm particles in the W/L system should be increased towards 10% and sonication procedures improved to allow good redispersion to test the lower bound of L, which we expect to be around 1 μm. Also, a new W/L fabrication paradigm should be devised which uses sterically-stabilized particles, to continue the reduction of r towards the value used in simulations (5 nm) in order to test the fundamental physics of bijel formation, specifically what value of interfacial attachment energy is needed for long-term stability. Bijel dynamics can be further probed by using a technique which allows a variation in the probe lengthscale (e.g. / differential dynamic microscopy, DDM), as well as developing a better theoretical model for (multiple) light scattering in a bijel system to arrive at the mechanisms responsible for the anomalous aging, and compare to the predictions of monogelation. Finally, higher magnification/resolution microscopy should be used to look for particle segregation on the liquid-liquid interface (as seen in simulations) and to identify in real-space the locations of the changes in Gaussian curvature over time as measured in Chapter 4.

Particle stabilized emulsions, also known as Pickering emulsions, have been widely used in many industry applications. While the breadth of potential applications for Pickering emulsions keeps growing, our fundamental understanding of Pickering emulsions is still poor. My thesis work addresses both fundamentals and applications of particle stabilized emulsions. In the fundamental part of this thesis work, we investigated the effects of particle charge on particle adsorption and the particle contact angle, and to investigate their ensuing consequences for the stability of Pickering emulsions. We provided the first experimental hint that the widely overlooked image charge repulsion can hinder the adsorption of particle to the oil-water interface and prevent the formation of Pickering emulsions. Consistently with the experimental suggestion, our theoretical model also confirmed that the image charge repulsion has the right order of magnitude, relative to the other forces acting on the particle, to impede particle adsorption and Pickering emulsification. For the conditions in which particle adsorption to the liquid interface does occur, the particle contact angle will play an important role in influencing the stability and type of Pickering emulsions. Our experimental work showed that the equilibrium contact angle of particles at interfaces and the type of emulsions preferentially stabilized by these particles can be strongly affected by the particles' charging state, which we attribute to a free energy contribution from the electric field set up by the charged particle and its asymmetric counterion cloud. A very simplistic calculation considering only the dipole field as the leading contribution and treating the water phase as a perfect conductor, found that the energy stored in the field is indeed strong enough and shows sufficient variation with the particle position to shift the equilibrium position significantly from where it would be based on interfacial tension alone. In a separate, more application oriented part of this thesis work, we have fabricated microcapsules from double Pickering emulsions and demonstrated that the combined use of hard silica particles and pH-responsive dissoluble polymer particles at the emulsion interface imparts a combination of pH-responsiveness (stimulated pore opening) and structural integrity to resulting capsules. We have further demonstrated the first double Pickering emulsion templated capsules in which interfacial polymerization was carried out at both emulsion interfaces, yielding a capsule with two composite shells, composed of polyurethane and silica particles, and characterized the transport of a model cargo through the capsules walls as well as the capsules' mechanical properties.

archives@tulane.edu / 1 / Azeem Farinmade

Thermally expandable microspheres are spherical particles around 5-­‐40 µm in size, consisting of a polymeric shell in which a blowing agent has been encapsulated. The microspheres are expanded upon heating, resulting in a particularly low density. Microspheres are therefore suitable to use as light weight filler or as foaming agent. AkzoNobel is world leading in the production of expandable microspheres, which are commercialised under the name Expancel. Sustainability is a great focus at AkzoNobel and two issues that AkzoNobel works with today is to develop products free from chlorine and Me1. The aim with this thesis has been to investigate whether it is possible to produce microspheres free from these chemicals and to see if they can be a more sustainable alternative to one of the existing Expancel grades. In this study, the microspheres have been produced through free radical suspension polymerisation and analysed by measuring mainly the particle size and expansion properties. The polymeric shell was composed of the monomers acrylonitrile, methacrylonitrile, and methyl acrylate. The main focus has been to evaluate the silica-­‐based stabilisation system, which stabilise the monomer droplets during the suspension polymerisation. The stabilisation is possible due to the formation of silica flocs that is adsorbed on the surface of the droplets. It has been investigating how different parameters, e.g. amount of stabiliser or mixing procedure, affects the formation of silica flocs and the stabilisation of monomer droplets. For the silica-­‐based system, it was found that the mixing order, stirring rate, and amount of stabilisers affect the formation of flocs. It was also seen that the amount of stabiliser affect the stabilisation of droplets, and that some stabilisers is more significant than others. Microspheres without chlorine and Me1 have successfully been produced in laboratory scale (50 mL and 1 L). The expansion and size of the microspheres produced in this study was relatively similar to one of the existing Expancel grades. However, the reproducibility of polymerisations in 1 litre reactors has been poor. / Termiskt expanderbara mikrosfärer är sfäriska partiklar, ca 5-­‐40 µm i diameter, som består av ett polymerskal som innesluter en drivgas. Mikrosfärerna expanderar när de utsätts för värme och erhåller då en mycket låg densitet. De är därför lämpliga att använda som fyllmedel då låg vikt är önskvärt eller som skummedel. AkzoNobel är världsledande inom produktion av expanderbara mikrosfärer, som marknadsförs under namnet Expancel. Hållbar utveckling är en viktig fråga för AkzoNobel och två problem som de står inför idag är att utveckla produkter fria från klor och Me1. Målet med detta examensarbete har varit att undersöka om det är möjligt att framställa mikrosfärer fria från dessa kemikalier och om de framtagna mikrosfärerna skulle kunna vare ett hållbarare alternativ till en av de befintliga Expancel-­‐ produkterna. I den här studien har mikrosfärerna framställts genom suspensionspolymerisation som initierats av fria radikaler och de har analyserats främst genom att mäta partikelstorlek och expansionsegenskaper. Polymerskalet bestod av monomererna akrylnitril, metakrylnitril och metylakrylat. I det här arbetet har det viktigaste varit att utvärdera det silikabaserade stabiliseringssystemet som stabiliserar monomerdropparna vid polymerisationen. Stabiliseringen är möjlig eftersom silika bildar flockar som adsorberar på ytan av monomerdropparna. Olika parametrar, exempelvis mängd stabiliseringsmedel och satsningsförfarande, har därför varierats för att undersöka vilken effekt det får på flockningen av silika och stabiliseringen av monomerdroppar. Satsningsordning och omrörningshastiget för stabiliseringssystemet samt mängd stabiliseringsmedel är några av de faktorer som påverkar bildningen av flockar. Det konstaterades även att mängd stabiliseringsmedel påverkar stabiliseringen utav monomerdropparna. Fulländade mikrosfärer utan klor och Me1 har framställts i laboratorieskala (50 mL och 1 L) och partikelstorleken samt expansionsegenskaper är jämförbara med en av Expancels nuvarande produkter. Dock har reproducerbarheten i 1 litersskala varit otillfredsställande.

A produção de filmes biodegradáveis à base de amido representa um desafio tecnológico, pois estas matrizes são altamente sensíveis à água. Neste sentido, as pesquisas estão sendo realizadas a fim de melhorar as caraterísticas de hidrofobicidade sem afetar a integridade estrutural das matrizes. Dentre os compostos comumente empregados para melhorar as características de filmes biodegradáveis, pode-se mencionar os óleos e ácidos graxos. O óleo de sementes de melancia apresenta alto potencial de aplicação em matrizes filmogênicas, pois além da possibilidade de melhorar as propriedades de barreira, apresenta compostos fitoquímicos com atividade antioxidante, que podem conferir um caráter ativo aos materiais produzidos. Neste contexto, o objetivo deste trabalho foi desenvolver e caracterizar filmes à base de amido modificado de mandioca e óleo de sementes de melancia. O óleo de sementes de melancia foi extraído por batelada com etanol pressurizado, sob diferentes temperaturas de extração (40, 60 e 80°C) e diferentes comprimentos de leito de extração (L1 = 4,2 cm, L2 = 9,8 cm e L3 = 15,8 cm). A cinética de extração foi matematicamente descrita utilizando-se o modelo de Peleg e os óleos caraterizados quanto à atividade antioxidante. Posteriormente foram testados quatro amidos modificados de mandioca (amido reticulado, AR; amido acetilado, AA; amido não modificado, ANM e amido duplamente modificado, AAR) com a finalidade de selecionar o que apresentasse melhores caraterísticas na produção de filmes quanto ao caráter hidrofóbico. Os filmes foram produzidos pela técnica de casting, utilizando - se concentrações fixas de amido e sorbitol (4 e 1,2 g/100g de solução filmogênica, respectivamente). O caráter hidrofóbico das matrizes foi avaliado pela determinação da solubilidade, grau de inchamento, permeabilidade ao vapor de água e ângulo de contato. Adicionalmente, foram produzidas emulsões através da técnica de Pickering, com diferentes concentrações de óleo e amido e caraterizadas quanto à estabilidade, tamanho de partículas e polidispersidade. A emulsão com maior estabilidade foi incorporada na formulação de filmes à base de AR em concentrações de 0 a 0,5 g de óleo na emulsão/100 g de solução filmogênica. Todos os filmes foram caracterizados quanto às propriedades mecânicas, microscopia, espectroscopia de infravermelho (FTIR), difração de raios X, cor, solubilidade, inchamento, permeabilidade ao vapor de água e ângulo de contato. Os resultados da extração de óleos mostraram rendimentos superiores sob temperaturas de 80°C e melhor atividade antioxidante a 60°C. O modelo de Peleg apresentou um bom ajuste, observando-se coeficientes de correlação altos (R2 > 0,90). A caraterização dos filmes produzidos com diferentes amidos modificados mostrou que o AR formou matrizes com maior ângulo de contato, menor grau de inchamento e maior resistência mecânica. As emulsões com maior de estabilidade foram produzidas com altas concentrações de óleo e amido (15 e 12 g/100 g de emulsão, respectivamente). Os filmes produzidos com incorporação de óleo na forma de emulsão Pickering apresentaram caráter mais hidrofóbico, sendo também alteradas as caraterísticas estruturais com o aumento da concentração de óleo. Os filmes produzidos com a incorporação de óleo em forma de emulsão apresentaram conteúdos de fenólicos totais de 0,19 a 5,68 mg equivalente de ácido gálico/100g de filmes. No entanto, os filmes não apresentaram atividade antioxidante frente ao radical DPPH•. / The production of biodegradable films based on starch represents a technological challenge because these matrices are highly sensitive to water. In this sense, the research is being carried out in order to improve the characteristics of hydrophobicity without affecting the structural integrity of the matrices. Among the compounds commonly used to improve the characteristics of biodegradable films, the oils and fatty acids can be highlighted. The oil of the watermelon seeds presents high potential of application in filmogenic matrices because in addition to the possibility of improving the barrier properties, it presents phytochemical compounds with antioxidant activity, which can impart an active characteristic to the produced materials. In this context, the objective of this work was to develop and characterize films based on modified cassava starch and watermelon oil. The watermelon oil was extracted in batches with pressurized ethanol under different extraction temperatures (40, 60, and 80°C) and different extraction bed lengths (L1 = 4.2 cm, L2 = 9.8 cm, and L3 = 15.8 cm). The kinetics of extraction were mathematically described using the Peleg model and the oils characterized for antioxidant activity. Four modified starches of cassava (reticulated starch, AR, acetylated starch, AA, unmodified starch, ANM, and doubly modified starch, AAR) were then tested in order to select the material with the best hydrophobic characteristics. The films were produced by the casting technique, using fixed concentrations of starch and sorbitol (4 and 1.2 g/100 g of film-forming solution, respectively). The hydrophobic characteristic of the matrices was evaluated by determining the solubility, degree of swelling, permeability to water vapor, and contact angle. In addition, emulsions were produced using the Pickering technique with different concentrations of oil and starch and then, characterized for stability, particle size, and polydispersity. The results of the extraction showed higher yields under temperatures of 80°C and better antioxidant activity at 60°C. The Peleg model presented a good fit, observing high correlation coefficients (R2> 0.90). The characterization of the films produced with different modified starches showed that AR formed matrices with higher contact angle, lower degree of swelling, and higher mechanical resistance. Emulsions with the highest degree of stability were produced with high concentrations of oil and starch (15 and 12 g/100 g of emulsion, respectively). The films produced with oil incorporation in the form of Pickering emulsion presented a more hydrophobic characteristic, and the structural characteristics were also altered with the increase of oil concentration. The films produced with the incorporation of oil in emulsion form presented total phenolic contents of 0.19 to 5.68 mg of gallic acid equivalent/100 g of films. However, the films did not present antioxidant activity against the DPPH• radical.

Stimulus-responsive colloidosomes which completely dissolve upon a mild pH change are developed. pH-Responsive nanoparticles that dissolve upon a mild pH increase are synthesized by a nanoprecipitation method and are used as stabilizers for a double water-in-oil-in-water Pickering emulsion. These emulsions serve as templates for the production of pH-responsive colloidosomes. Removal of the middle oil phase produces water-core colloidosomes that have a shell made of pH-responsive nanoparticles, which rapidly dissolve above pH 7. The permeability of these capsules is assessed by FRAP, whereby the diffusion of a fluorescent tracer through the capsule shell is monitored. Three methods for tuning the permeability of the pH-responsive colloidosomes were developed: ethanol consolidation, layer-by-layer assembly and the generation of PLGA-pH-responsive nanoparticle hybrid colloidosomes. The resulting colloidosomes have different responses to the pH stimulus, as well as different pre-release permeability values. Additionally, fundamental studies regarding the role of particle surface roughness on Pickering emulsification are also shown. The pH-responsive nanoparticles were used as a coating for larger silica particles, producing rough raspberry-like particles. Partial dissolution of the nanoparticle coating allows tuning of the substrate surface roughness while retaining the same surface chemistry. The results obtained show that surface roughness increases the emulsion stability of decane-water systems (to almost twice), but only up to a certain point, where extremely rough particles produced less stable emulsions presumably due to a Cassie-Baxter wetting regime. Additionally, in an octanol-water system, surface roughness was shown to affect the type of emulsion generated. These results are of exceptional importance since they are the first controlled experimental evidence regarding the role of particle surface roughness on Pickering emulsification, thus clarifying some conflicting ideas that exist regarding this issue.

Carbon dioxide (CO₂) flooding is the second most common tertiary recovery technique implemented in the United States. Yet, there is huge potential to advance the process by improving the volumetric sweep efficiency of injected CO₂. Delivering CO₂ into the reservoir as a foam is one way to do this. Surfactants have traditionally been used to generate CO₂ foams for mobility control; however, the use of nanoparticles as a foam stabilizing agent provides several advantages. Surfactant-stabilized foams require constant regeneration to be effective, and the surfactant is adsorbed onto reservoir rocks and is prone to chemical degradation at harsh reservoir conditions. Nanoparticle-stabilized foams have been found to be tolerant of high temperature and high salinity environments. Their nano size also allows them to be transported through reservoir rocks without blocking pore throats. Stable CO₂-in-water foams were generated using 5 nm silica nanoparticles with a short chain polyethylene glycol surface coating. These foams were generated by the co-injection of CO₂ and a nanoparticle dispersion through both rock matrix and fractures. A threshold shear rate was found to exist for foam generation in both fractured and non-fractured Boise sandstone cores. The ability of nanoparticles to generate foams only above a threshold shear rate is advantageous; in field applications, high shear rates are associated with high permeability zones, where the presence of foam is desired. Reducing CO₂ mobility in these high permeability zones diverts CO₂ into lower permeability regions containing not yet swept oil. Nanoparticles were also found to be able to stabilize CO₂ foams by co-injection through rough-walled fractures in cement cores, demonstrating their ability to stabilize foams without matrix flow. Experiments were conducted on the ability of fly ash, a waste product from burning coal in power plants, to stabilize oil-in-water emulsions and CO₂ foams. The use of fly ash particles as a foam stabilizing agent would significantly reduce material costs for potential tertiary oil recovery and CO₂ sequestration applications. Nano-milled fly ash particles without surface treatment were able to generate stable oil-in-water emulsions when high frequency, high energy vibrations were applied to a mixture of fly ash dispersion and dodecane. Oil-in-water emulsions were also generated by co-injecting fly ash and dodecane, a low pressure analog to CO₂, through a beadpack. Emulsions generated by co-injection, however, were unstable and coalesced within an hour. A threshold shear rate was required for the emulsion generation. Fly ash particles were found to be able to stabilize CO₂ foam in a high pressure batch mixing cell, but not by co-injection through a beadpack. Dispersions of fly ash particles were found to be stable only at low salinities (<1 wt% NaCl). / text

A produção de filmes biodegradáveis à base de amido representa um desafio tecnológico, pois estas matrizes são altamente sensíveis à água. Neste sentido, as pesquisas estão sendo realizadas a fim de melhorar as caraterísticas de hidrofobicidade sem afetar a integridade estrutural das matrizes. Dentre os compostos comumente empregados para melhorar as características de filmes biodegradáveis, pode-se mencionar os óleos e ácidos graxos. O óleo de sementes de melancia apresenta alto potencial de aplicação em matrizes filmogênicas, pois além da possibilidade de melhorar as propriedades de barreira, apresenta compostos fitoquímicos com atividade antioxidante, que podem conferir um caráter ativo aos materiais produzidos. Neste contexto, o objetivo deste trabalho foi desenvolver e caracterizar filmes à base de amido modificado de mandioca e óleo de sementes de melancia. O óleo de sementes de melancia foi extraído por batelada com etanol pressurizado, sob diferentes temperaturas de extração (40, 60 e 80°C) e diferentes comprimentos de leito de extração (L1 = 4,2 cm, L2 = 9,8 cm e L3 = 15,8 cm). A cinética de extração foi matematicamente descrita utilizando-se o modelo de Peleg e os óleos caraterizados quanto à atividade antioxidante. Posteriormente foram testados quatro amidos modificados de mandioca (amido reticulado, AR; amido acetilado, AA; amido não modificado, ANM e amido duplamente modificado, AAR) com a finalidade de selecionar o que apresentasse melhores caraterísticas na produção de filmes quanto ao caráter hidrofóbico. Os filmes foram produzidos pela técnica de casting, utilizando - se concentrações fixas de amido e sorbitol (4 e 1,2 g/100g de solução filmogênica, respectivamente). O caráter hidrofóbico das matrizes foi avaliado pela determinação da solubilidade, grau de inchamento, permeabilidade ao vapor de água e ângulo de contato. Adicionalmente, foram produzidas emulsões através da técnica de Pickering, com diferentes concentrações de óleo e amido e caraterizadas quanto à estabilidade, tamanho de partículas e polidispersidade. A emulsão com maior estabilidade foi incorporada na formulação de filmes à base de AR em concentrações de 0 a 0,5 g de óleo na emulsão/100 g de solução filmogênica. Todos os filmes foram caracterizados quanto às propriedades mecânicas, microscopia, espectroscopia de infravermelho (FTIR), difração de raios X, cor, solubilidade, inchamento, permeabilidade ao vapor de água e ângulo de contato. Os resultados da extração de óleos mostraram rendimentos superiores sob temperaturas de 80°C e melhor atividade antioxidante a 60°C. O modelo de Peleg apresentou um bom ajuste, observando-se coeficientes de correlação altos (R2 &gt; 0,90). A caraterização dos filmes produzidos com diferentes amidos modificados mostrou que o AR formou matrizes com maior ângulo de contato, menor grau de inchamento e maior resistência mecânica. As emulsões com maior de estabilidade foram produzidas com altas concentrações de óleo e amido (15 e 12 g/100 g de emulsão, respectivamente). Os filmes produzidos com incorporação de óleo na forma de emulsão Pickering apresentaram caráter mais hidrofóbico, sendo também alteradas as caraterísticas estruturais com o aumento da concentração de óleo. Os filmes produzidos com a incorporação de óleo em forma de emulsão apresentaram conteúdos de fenólicos totais de 0,19 a 5,68 mg equivalente de ácido gálico/100g de filmes. No entanto, os filmes não apresentaram atividade antioxidante frente ao radical DPPH&bull;. / The production of biodegradable films based on starch represents a technological challenge because these matrices are highly sensitive to water. In this sense, the research is being carried out in order to improve the characteristics of hydrophobicity without affecting the structural integrity of the matrices. Among the compounds commonly used to improve the characteristics of biodegradable films, the oils and fatty acids can be highlighted. The oil of the watermelon seeds presents high potential of application in filmogenic matrices because in addition to the possibility of improving the barrier properties, it presents phytochemical compounds with antioxidant activity, which can impart an active characteristic to the produced materials. In this context, the objective of this work was to develop and characterize films based on modified cassava starch and watermelon oil. The watermelon oil was extracted in batches with pressurized ethanol under different extraction temperatures (40, 60, and 80°C) and different extraction bed lengths (L1 = 4.2 cm, L2 = 9.8 cm, and L3 = 15.8 cm). The kinetics of extraction were mathematically described using the Peleg model and the oils characterized for antioxidant activity. Four modified starches of cassava (reticulated starch, AR, acetylated starch, AA, unmodified starch, ANM, and doubly modified starch, AAR) were then tested in order to select the material with the best hydrophobic characteristics. The films were produced by the casting technique, using fixed concentrations of starch and sorbitol (4 and 1.2 g/100 g of film-forming solution, respectively). The hydrophobic characteristic of the matrices was evaluated by determining the solubility, degree of swelling, permeability to water vapor, and contact angle. In addition, emulsions were produced using the Pickering technique with different concentrations of oil and starch and then, characterized for stability, particle size, and polydispersity. The results of the extraction showed higher yields under temperatures of 80°C and better antioxidant activity at 60°C. The Peleg model presented a good fit, observing high correlation coefficients (R2&gt; 0.90). The characterization of the films produced with different modified starches showed that AR formed matrices with higher contact angle, lower degree of swelling, and higher mechanical resistance. Emulsions with the highest degree of stability were produced with high concentrations of oil and starch (15 and 12 g/100 g of emulsion, respectively). The films produced with oil incorporation in the form of Pickering emulsion presented a more hydrophobic characteristic, and the structural characteristics were also altered with the increase of oil concentration. The films produced with the incorporation of oil in emulsion form presented total phenolic contents of 0.19 to 5.68 mg of gallic acid equivalent/100 g of films. However, the films did not present antioxidant activity against the DPPH&bull; radical.

Les microgels sont des particules colloïdales polymères faiblement réticulées, capables de se gonfler d’un solvant, de se déformer et de s’adsorber à des interfaces liquides. Parmi eux, les microgels de poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (pNIPAM) sont thermosensibles et présentent une contraction en volume lorsque la température est supérieure à la température de transition de phase volumique, notée VPTT. De précédents travaux ont montré leur capacité à stabiliser des émulsions de Pickering : les émulsions peuvent être stables à des températures inférieures à la VPTT et être déstabilisées sur demande au-dessus de celle-ci. Afin d’approfondir la compréhension du mécanisme de stabilisation des émulsions, nous discutons le rôle de la structure des microgels sur leur adsorption, leur organisation à des interfaces modèles, les propriétés mécaniques des interfaces et les propriétés des émulsions résultantes en terme de stabilité (cinétique, mécanique) et de propriétés d’écoulement. Le rôle de la réticulation, de la présence de charges et de la taille est étudié pour le modèle du pNIPAM. Nous démontrons le lien existant entre conformation et propriétés macroscopiques des émulsions. En prenant en considération à la fois la structure des microgels et les procédés de formulation (voies d’émulsification), des émulsions avec des propriétés rhéologiques et des états de floculation variés peuvent être obtenues. Fort de ces connaissances, les concepts établis à l’aide des microgels de pNIPAM seront généralisés à d’autres familles de microgels, d’une part des systèmes biocompatibles avec des dérivés comportant des chaînes pendantes oligo(éthylène oxyde), d’autre part des microgels sensibles à des stimuli biologiques tels que la reconnaissance de sucre. / Microgels are soft and deformable colloidal particles that are swollen by a solvent and display the ability to deform and adsorb at liquid interfaces. The poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (pNIPAM) microgels are thermo-sensitive and exhibit a volume contraction when the temperature is raised above the volume phase transition temperature (VPTT). These particle have shown high potential as Pickering emulsions stabilizers: emulsions could be stable at ambiant temperature, below the VPTT and destabilize on-demand above it. To get insight into understanding of the emulsion stabilization mechanism, we systematically discuss the relation between the microgel structure, their adsorption, their organization at model interfaces, the viscoelastic behavior of the interface and the resulting emulsions properties in terms of stability and flow behavior. In the present work, using pNIPAM as model microgels, we investigate the effect of their cross-linking density, their size and their charge density. Varying the microgels structures and the formulation conditions (emulsification process), we could control the emulsions flocculation state and rheological behavior. Based on this knowledge, we propose to synthesize new biocompatible microgels as emulsion stabilizers. Using ligand-modified microgels sucrose-sensitive emulsions may be obtained, enlarging the possible application domains.

[pt] Atualmente a crescente demanda do uso de repelentes de insetos tem promovido a pesquisa de produtos mais eficazes e com uma maior durabilidade da ação repelente. O objetivo deste trabalho foi a obtenção de novas nanopartículas com propriedades interfaciais modificadas superficialmente com grupos funcionais catiônicos e polímeros aniônicos, com o intuito de melhorar a estabilidade de emulsões Pickering contendo um princípio ativo, N,N -dimetil-m-toluamida (DEET), comumente utilizado nos repelentes comerciais. A obtenção das nanopartículas incluiu a funcionalização inicial da superfície de nanopartículas de sílica comerciais com grupos amino secundários (R-NH2), seguido da introdução de grupos catiônicos de amônio quaternário (R-NR4 positivo) e posterior complexação eletrostática com polímeros aniônicos (poli(ácido acrílico), PAA, e poli(4-estireno sulfonato de sódio), PSS). As nanopartículas modificadas mostraram boa dispersabilidade em meio aquoso, favorecendo a estabilização de emulsões de tipo óleo em água (O/A). Os melhores resultados dos estudos de estabilidade no tempo das emulsões foram obtidos usando as nanopartículas catiônicas (SiNP-A,G) recobertas com PAA e com a mistura de polímeros (PAA mais PSS). As emulsões Pickering obtidas com as nanopartículas de sílica recobertas com PAA mostraram os melhores resultados na retardação da evaporação do DEET, com potencial uso para liberação lenta deste composto. / [en] Currently the increasing demand for insect repellent use has promoted research into more effective products and a longer repellent action. The objective of this work was to obtain new nanoparticles by surface modification with cationic functional groups and anionic polymers, with the aim of improving the stability of Pickering emulsions containing an active ingredient, N,N -diethyl-m-toluamide (DEET) commonly used in commercial repellents. The preparation of the nanoparticles included initial surface functionalization of commercial silica nanoparticles with secondary amino groups (R-NH2), followed by the introduction of cationic quaternary ammonium groups (R-NR4 positive) and subsequent electrostatic complexation with anionic polymers (poly (acrylic acid), PAA, and poly(sodium 4-styrenesulfonate), PSS). The modified nanoparticles showed good dispersibility in aqueous medium, favoring the stabilization of emulsions oil-in-water (O/W). The best results of the emulsion time stability studies were obtained using cationic silica nanoparticles (SiNP-A,G) covered with PAA and with the polymer mixture (PA plus PSS). The Pickering emulsions obtained with the cationic silica nanoparticles coated with PAA showed the best results in retarding DEET evaporation, with potential use for slow release of this compound.