O estudo da proteção em sistemas elétricos de potência representa um tópico de grande relevância proporcionando continuidade do serviço e segurança da operação. Hoje, a coordenação de relés direcionais de sobrecorrente (RDSs) é realizada usando formulações matemáticas que basicamente levam em consideração o tempo de operação dos dispositivos e o atendimento ao intervalo de tempo de coordenação (ITC). Nesta tese tem sido realizada a coordenação e seletividade entre RDSs considerando a otimização simultânea das unidades temporizada e instantânea de fase e neutro, contingências em circuitos mutuamente acoplados e ajuste automático das curvas. Algumas questões como os critérios de curtos-circuitos e tratamento topológico para circuitos interligados são também discutidas. Inicialmente, os estudos foram tratados como Otimização Monobjetivo (soma ponderada) minimizando a soma do tempo dos relés primários quando aplicado um curto-circuito do tipo close-in, na barra remota e a soma dos ajustes da unidade de sobrecorrente instantânea. Em sequência duas abordagens envolvendo um aspecto multiobjetivo são propostas. A primeira minimiza o tempo de operação de todos dispositivos de proteção, enquanto maximiza um índice de coordenação, ocasionando então em ITC variável. Já a segunda, além de minimizar o tempo de operação, o número de ajustes permitidos a serem alterados é limitado pelo operador, se a coordenação de todos elementos envolvidos for inviável. Os ajustes dos RDSs são obtidos por meio de algoritmos meta-heurísticos (derivados do Particle Swarm Optimization e Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm-II. Os métodos modernos ou inteligentes, concebidos a partir de conceitos de inteligência artificial, têm evoluído rapidamente e permitem a obtenção de excelentes soluções com a confiabilidade adequada para aplicações em engenharia. A eficácia e robustez do método são realizadas em um sistema de transmissão pertencente à área de uma concessionária brasileira. Por fim, os resultados foram bem satisfatórios visto que o emprego da unidade instantânea e múltiplas curvas diminuiu substancialmente a soma de tempo de atuação dos dispositivos de proteção, contribuindo para minimizar o trabalho empregado pelo engenheiro de proteção com segurança e rica informação técnica. Ademais, as estratégias multiobjetivos auxiliam o operador na tomada de decisão uma vez que cada solução encontrada atende específicas restrições oriundas do equipamentos empregados ou estados contingenciais da rede. / The study of power system protection represents a highly relevant topic providing continuity of service and safety of operation. Today, the coordination of directional overcurrent relays (DORs) is performed using mathematical formulations that basically take into account the operation time of the devices and the coordination time interval (CTI). In this thesis, coordination and selectivity between DORs have been performed considering the simultaneous optimization of the instantaneous and time overcurrent unit (both phase and ground), contingencies in coupled mutually circuits and automatic determination of the curves. Some issues are also discussed such as criteria for short-circuit calculation and topological treatment for interconnected circuits. Initially, the studies were considered as being a case of Monobjective Optimization (weighted sum) by minimizing the sum of operation time of primary relays when occur close-in and line-end faults and also the sum of the instantaneous overcurrent unit. In sequence are proposed two approaches involving multiobjective aspect. The first minimizes the operating time of all protection devices, while maximizing a coordination index (here, CTI is non-fixed). The second, besides minimizing the operating time, the number of settings allowed to alter is limited by operator, if the coordination of all elements involved is not possible in practice. The settings of DORs have been found by using meta-heuristic algorithms (derived from Particle Swarm Optimization and Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm-II). Modern or intelligent methods, conceived from artificial intelligence, have evolved rapidly and obtained excellent solutions with the acceptable reliability for engineering applications. The test has been carried out on a transmission network from a Brazilian utility. Finally, the results were well satisfactory because using the instantaneous unit and multiple curves substantially reduced the sum of operating time of the protective devices, contributing to decrease workload of protection engineers with safety and rich technical information. In addition, the multiobjective strategies help the operator in the decision making since each solution satisfies specific constraints coming from used equipment or contingency states of the existing network.

Este trabalho tem por objetivo apresentar o desenvolvimento e a implementacao em uma rotina computacional, de algoritmos para a localizacao de faltas em linhas de transmissao com subestacoes conectadas em derivacao. Os algoritmos propostos neste trabalho integram uma metodologia para localizacao de faltas, que e capaz de identificar corretamente o ponto de ocorrencia do defeito utilizando as componentes de fase dos fasores de tensoes e correntes, calculadas atraves dos registros desses sinais, efetuados por oscilografos digitais e/ou reles de protecao instalados nos terminais da linha de transmissao. Alem disso, a metodologia para localizacao de faltas tem acesso aos parametros eletricos da linha e informacoes sobre o tipo de ligacao e o carregamento dos transformadores conectados aos terminais das derivacoes. Este trabalho apresenta tambem o desenvolvimento dos modelos para os elementos do sistema de transmissao, em componentes de fase. Estes modelos sao utilizados pelos algoritmos que integram a metodologia para localizacao de faltas. / This research presents the development and implementation in a computational routine, of algorithms for fault location in multi-terminal transmission lines. The algorithms proposed in this work are part of a fault location methodology, which is capable of correctly identifying the fault point based on voltage and current phase components. The voltage and current phasors are calculated using measurements of voltage and current signals from intelligent electronic devices, located on the transmission line terminals. The algorithms have access to the electrical parameters of the transmission lines and to information about the transformers loading and their connection type. This work also presents the development of phase component models for the transmission system elements used by the fault location algorithms, that are part of the fault location methodology.

Um dos problemas mais graves e preocupantes que ocorrem em redes de distribuição é a falta de alta impedância proveniente do rompimento e conseqüente queda do condutor primário. Devido ao seu alto grau de periculosidade, é fundamental que tal fenômeno seja exaustivamente analisado e pesquisado. Com a evolução da tecnologia digital, os programas de simulação computacional se tornaram grandes aliados nas pesquisas em proteção de sistemas elétricos. A partir do estudo de modelos já desenvolvidos e testados de faltas de alta impedância em redes de distribuição, o presente trabalho realiza uma análise deste tipo de falta e discute a implementação de um modelo de fácil configuração e adaptável a diferentes cenários. Mais do que isso, este trabalho se propõe a desenvolver uma interface computacional propícia para viabilizar este tipo de estudo em redes de distribuição, dada a necessidade de se obter uma ferramenta que possibilite a automatização do processo de simulação deste fenômeno. Com o resultado deste trabalho será possível testar e validar esquemas de proteção contra faltas de alta impedância ocasionadas por rompimento e queda de condutor primário em redes de distribuição, bem como auxiliar no desenvolvimento e implementação de novos algoritmos de detecção deste tipo de falta. / The high impedance fault caused by the broken and fallen conductor is one of the most hazardous and worrying problems that occur in distribution network. Due to its high harmful level it is necessary to analyze and research such phenomenon exhaustingly. The evolution of digital technology allowed the development of computing simulation software that became a great ally to the research of electrical systems protective devices. Based on the study of already developed and tested high impedance fault models the present work revisits this type of fault and discuss the implementation of an easy configureable model that is adaptable to different scenarios. Beyond this, the present work also proposes to develop a proper computing interface in order to make the study of such faults at distribution network viable once it is necessary to have a tool that allows the automation of high impedance fault simulating process. The results of thiswork will allowto test and validate protective schemes against high impedance faults caused by the breakdown and fall of primary conductors at distribution network systems, as well as they will be helpful when developing and implementing new algorithms for detection of such kind of fault.

O estudo da proteção em sistemas elétricos de potência representa um tópico de grande relevância proporcionando continuidade do serviço e segurança da operação. Hoje, a coordenação de relés direcionais de sobrecorrente (RDSs) é realizada usando formulações matemáticas que basicamente levam em consideração o tempo de operação dos dispositivos e o atendimento ao intervalo de tempo de coordenação (ITC). Nesta tese tem sido realizada a coordenação e seletividade entre RDSs considerando a otimização simultânea das unidades temporizada e instantânea de fase e neutro, contingências em circuitos mutuamente acoplados e ajuste automático das curvas. Algumas questões como os critérios de curtos-circuitos e tratamento topológico para circuitos interligados são também discutidas. Inicialmente, os estudos foram tratados como Otimização Monobjetivo (soma ponderada) minimizando a soma do tempo dos relés primários quando aplicado um curto-circuito do tipo close-in, na barra remota e a soma dos ajustes da unidade de sobrecorrente instantânea. Em sequência duas abordagens envolvendo um aspecto multiobjetivo são propostas. A primeira minimiza o tempo de operação de todos dispositivos de proteção, enquanto maximiza um índice de coordenação, ocasionando então em ITC variável. Já a segunda, além de minimizar o tempo de operação, o número de ajustes permitidos a serem alterados é limitado pelo operador, se a coordenação de todos elementos envolvidos for inviável. Os ajustes dos RDSs são obtidos por meio de algoritmos meta-heurísticos (derivados do Particle Swarm Optimization e Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm-II. Os métodos modernos ou inteligentes, concebidos a partir de conceitos de inteligência artificial, têm evoluído rapidamente e permitem a obtenção de excelentes soluções com a confiabilidade adequada para aplicações em engenharia. A eficácia e robustez do método são realizadas em um sistema de transmissão pertencente à área de uma concessionária brasileira. Por fim, os resultados foram bem satisfatórios visto que o emprego da unidade instantânea e múltiplas curvas diminuiu substancialmente a soma de tempo de atuação dos dispositivos de proteção, contribuindo para minimizar o trabalho empregado pelo engenheiro de proteção com segurança e rica informação técnica. Ademais, as estratégias multiobjetivos auxiliam o operador na tomada de decisão uma vez que cada solução encontrada atende específicas restrições oriundas do equipamentos empregados ou estados contingenciais da rede. / The study of power system protection represents a highly relevant topic providing continuity of service and safety of operation. Today, the coordination of directional overcurrent relays (DORs) is performed using mathematical formulations that basically take into account the operation time of the devices and the coordination time interval (CTI). In this thesis, coordination and selectivity between DORs have been performed considering the simultaneous optimization of the instantaneous and time overcurrent unit (both phase and ground), contingencies in coupled mutually circuits and automatic determination of the curves. Some issues are also discussed such as criteria for short-circuit calculation and topological treatment for interconnected circuits. Initially, the studies were considered as being a case of Monobjective Optimization (weighted sum) by minimizing the sum of operation time of primary relays when occur close-in and line-end faults and also the sum of the instantaneous overcurrent unit. In sequence are proposed two approaches involving multiobjective aspect. The first minimizes the operating time of all protection devices, while maximizing a coordination index (here, CTI is non-fixed). The second, besides minimizing the operating time, the number of settings allowed to alter is limited by operator, if the coordination of all elements involved is not possible in practice. The settings of DORs have been found by using meta-heuristic algorithms (derived from Particle Swarm Optimization and Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm-II). Modern or intelligent methods, conceived from artificial intelligence, have evolved rapidly and obtained excellent solutions with the acceptable reliability for engineering applications. The test has been carried out on a transmission network from a Brazilian utility. Finally, the results were well satisfactory because using the instantaneous unit and multiple curves substantially reduced the sum of operating time of the protective devices, contributing to decrease workload of protection engineers with safety and rich technical information. In addition, the multiobjective strategies help the operator in the decision making since each solution satisfies specific constraints coming from used equipment or contingency states of the existing network.

There has been significant development in the area of neural network based power system protection in the previous decade. Neural network technology has been applied for various protective relaying functions including distance protection. The reliability and efficiency of ANN based distance relays is improving with the developing digital technologies. There are, however, some inherent deficiencies that still exist in the way these relays are designed. This research addresses some of these issues and proposes an improved protective relaying scheme.<p> The traditional ANN distance relay designs use parameter estimation algorithms to determine the phasors of currents and voltages. These phasors are used as inputs to determine the distance of a fault from relay location. The relays are trained and tested on this criterion; however, no specific relay characteristic has been defined. There is a need for development of a new methodology that will enable designing of an ANN that works as a generic distance relay with clearly defined operating boundary.<p> This research work presents a modified distance relaying algorithm that has been combined with a neural network approach to eliminate the use of phasors. The neural network is trained to recognize faults on basis of a specific relay characteristic. The algorithm is flexible and has been extended for the design of other relays. The neural network has been trained using pure sinusoidal values and has been tested on a 17-bus power system simulated in PSCAD. The training and testing of the neural network on different systems ensures that the relay is generic in nature. The proposed relay can be used on any transmission line without re-training the neural network.<p> The design has been tested for different fault conditions including different fault resistances and fault inception angles. The test results show that the relay is able to detect faults in lesser time as compared to conventional relay algorithms while maintaining the integrity of relay boundaries.

There has been significant development in the area of neural network based power system protection in the previous decade. Neural network technology has been applied for various protective relaying functions including distance protection. The reliability and efficiency of ANN based distance relays is improving with the developing digital technologies. There are, however, some inherent deficiencies that still exist in the way these relays are designed. This research addresses some of these issues and proposes an improved protective relaying scheme.<p> The traditional ANN distance relay designs use parameter estimation algorithms to determine the phasors of currents and voltages. These phasors are used as inputs to determine the distance of a fault from relay location. The relays are trained and tested on this criterion; however, no specific relay characteristic has been defined. There is a need for development of a new methodology that will enable designing of an ANN that works as a generic distance relay with clearly defined operating boundary.<p> This research work presents a modified distance relaying algorithm that has been combined with a neural network approach to eliminate the use of phasors. The neural network is trained to recognize faults on basis of a specific relay characteristic. The algorithm is flexible and has been extended for the design of other relays. The neural network has been trained using pure sinusoidal values and has been tested on a 17-bus power system simulated in PSCAD. The training and testing of the neural network on different systems ensures that the relay is generic in nature. The proposed relay can be used on any transmission line without re-training the neural network.<p> The design has been tested for different fault conditions including different fault resistances and fault inception angles. The test results show that the relay is able to detect faults in lesser time as compared to conventional relay algorithms while maintaining the integrity of relay boundaries.

The fast clearing of faults is essential for preventing equipment damage and preserving the stability of the power transmission systems with smaller operating margins. This thesis examined the application of fault generated transients for fast detection and isolation of faults in a transmission system. The basis of the transient based protection scheme developed and implemented in this thesis is the fault current directions identified by a set of relays located at different nodes of the system. The direction of the fault currents relative to a relay location is determined by comparing the signs of the wavelet coefficients of the currents measured in all branches connected to the node. The faulted segment can be identified by combining the fault directions identified at different locations in the system. In order to facilitate this, each relay is linked with the relays located at the adjacent nodes through a telecommunication network. In order to prevent possible malfunctioning of relays due to transients originating from non-fault related events, a transient recognition system to supervise the relays is proposed. The applicability of different classification methods to develop a reliable transient recognition system was examined. A Hidden Markov Model classifier that utilizes the energies associated with the wavelet coefficients of the measured currents as input features was selected as the most suitable solution. Performance of the protection scheme was evaluated using a high voltage transmission system simulated in PSCAD/EMTDC simulation software. The custom models required to simulate the complete protection scheme were implemented in PSCAD/EMTDC. The effects of various factors such as fault impedance, signal noise, fault inception angle and current transformer saturation were investigated. The performance of the protection scheme was also tested with the field recorded signals. Hardware prototypes of the fault direction identification scheme and the transient classification system were implemented and tested under different practical scenarios using input signals generated with a real-time waveform playback instrument. The test results presented in this thesis successfully demonstrate the potential of using transient signals embedded in currents for detection, localization and recognition of faults in transmission networks in a fast and reliable manner.

The fast clearing of faults is essential for preventing equipment damage and preserving the stability of the power transmission systems with smaller operating margins. This thesis examined the application of fault generated transients for fast detection and isolation of faults in a transmission system. The basis of the transient based protection scheme developed and implemented in this thesis is the fault current directions identified by a set of relays located at different nodes of the system. The direction of the fault currents relative to a relay location is determined by comparing the signs of the wavelet coefficients of the currents measured in all branches connected to the node. The faulted segment can be identified by combining the fault directions identified at different locations in the system. In order to facilitate this, each relay is linked with the relays located at the adjacent nodes through a telecommunication network. In order to prevent possible malfunctioning of relays due to transients originating from non-fault related events, a transient recognition system to supervise the relays is proposed. The applicability of different classification methods to develop a reliable transient recognition system was examined. A Hidden Markov Model classifier that utilizes the energies associated with the wavelet coefficients of the measured currents as input features was selected as the most suitable solution. Performance of the protection scheme was evaluated using a high voltage transmission system simulated in PSCAD/EMTDC simulation software. The custom models required to simulate the complete protection scheme were implemented in PSCAD/EMTDC. The effects of various factors such as fault impedance, signal noise, fault inception angle and current transformer saturation were investigated. The performance of the protection scheme was also tested with the field recorded signals. Hardware prototypes of the fault direction identification scheme and the transient classification system were implemented and tested under different practical scenarios using input signals generated with a real-time waveform playback instrument. The test results presented in this thesis successfully demonstrate the potential of using transient signals embedded in currents for detection, localization and recognition of faults in transmission networks in a fast and reliable manner.

abstract: This dissertation presents a new hybrid fault current limiter (FCL) topology that is primarily intended to protect single-phase power equipment. It can however be extended to protect three phase systems but would need three devices to protect each individual phase. In comparison against the existing fault current limiter technology, the salient fea-tures of the proposed topology are: a) provides variable impedance that provides a 50% reduction in prospective fault current; b) near instantaneous response time which is with-in the first half cycle (1-4 ms); c) the use of semiconductor switches as the commutating switch which produces reduced leakage current, reduced losses, improved reliability, and a faster switch time (ns-µs); d) zero losses in steady-state operation; e) use of a Neodym-ium (NdFeB) permanent magnet as the limiting impedance which reduces size, cost, weight, eliminates DC biasing and cooling costs; f) use of Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) to control the magnitude of the fault current to a user's desired level. g) experi-mental test system is developed and tested to prove the concepts of the proposed FCL. This dissertation presents the proposed topology and its working principle backed up with numerical verifications, simulation results, and hardware implementation results. Conclu-sions and future work are also presented. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Electrical Engineering 2013

As the world strives towards finding alternative sources of power generation, photovoltaic generation has become an increasingly prevalent alternative energy source on power systems world-wide. This paper studies the effects that incorporating photovoltaic generation has on the existing power systems and their power system protection schemes. Along with the addition of this emerging alternative energy source comes the volatility of PV power generation as cloud-cover produces erratic variations in solar irradiance and PV power production. Such variations in PV power may lead to unfavorable operating conditions and power system failures. The issues addressed in this paper include a study of inverter harmonic levels for variations in DC voltage and power, and a study of power system protection failures caused by cloud-induced PV power variations. Such issues are addressed so as to provide a better understanding of the effects that cloud-induced PV power generation variability has on power systems and its protection schemes.