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Relatively little is known about the manifestation of conduct disorder among girls versus boys, despite increasing rates among girls. Moreover, it has been well-established that adolescent conduct disorder is correlated with other problem behaviors (e.g., substance use, status offenses, and risky sexual behaviors), and there is evidence that there are differences by sex and ethnicity in the likelihood of exhibiting specific patterns of these problem behaviors. It has been suggested that a dimensional approach may provide a more accurate conceptualization of adolescent externalizing behaviors, particularly among girls. To address these issues, this study used a nationally representative sample to examine patterns of adolescent problem behaviors across sex and ethnicity. Latent class analysis was used to determine classes of problem behaviors and to model differences in class membership by sex and ethnicity. Behaviors examined included violent and non-violent criminal behavior, drug and alcohol use, risky sexual activity, and status offenses. A model with five latent classes of problem behaviors provided the best representation of the data. One class represented high levels of problem behaviors, one represented low levels of problem behaviors, and three classes represented high levels of specific problem behaviors. These classes were characterized respectively by (a) high levels of criminal activity, (b) high levels of substance use, and (c) high levels of risky sexual activity. Differences existed in the likelihood of belonging to each class, such that boys were more likely to belong to the "high problem behavior," "criminal activity," and "risky sexual activity" classes. Girls were more likely to belong to the "substance use" and "low problem behavior" classes. These results suggest that a broader definition of externalizing behavior may more accurately capture adolescent behavior patterns, particularly among girls. Implications of findings and direction for future research are discussed. / Psychology

Adolescents evince a more heightened propensity for risk taking than children and adults. This propensity can be directed toward negative (e.g., illegal or health-compromising) or positive (e.g., socially acceptable and beneficial) risk behaviors. Much existing research on adolescent risk behavior focuses on negative risk taking due to the public health implications of engaging in these behaviors. However, it is also important for society to promote youth engagement in positive risk behaviors that may benefit the well-being of adolescents and those around them. The present study explored positive risk taking in a sample of 164 American adolescents (45% female) ages 16-20 (M = 17.9; SD = .72). There were three central aims: (1) develop a reliable self-report measure of positive risk taking and examine its association with self-reports of negative risk taking and several behavioral measures of risk taking; (2) explore the extent to which previously established psychological correlates of negative risk taking are also associated with positive risk taking; (3) determine whether positive risk taking is associated with indicators of positive functioning, such as academic orientation, grit, and mental health. Results indicated that positive risk taking was associated with greater self-reported negative risk taking, and greater risk taking, feedback learning, and punishment sensitivity on experimental risk taking tasks. Although positive risk taking was not associated with grit or internalizing symptoms, positive risk taking was positively associated with stronger school engagement and better school performance. Future directions and applications to positive youth development programming are discussed. / Psychology

Adolescent delinquency represents a significant threat to the health and future of developing persons. Due to the important implications of adolescent problem behaviors, it is essential that we understand the complex mechanisms in the life and mind of a developing person that may lead to these behavior problems in adolescence. I proposed that early family instability, including residential moves and changes in household composition, would be a primary predictor of adolescent problem behaviors, including risk-taking and externalizing behaviors. This relation was predicted to be mediated by future orientation. When young children are faced with uncertainty, they may develop a shorter-term view of their own life. Therefore, family instability is predicted to influence the developing orientation to the future, which is predicted to be related to problem behaviors in adolescence. Deviant peer association and family routine were predicted to be moderators in the model. The results reveal a significant association between early family instability and adolescent externalizing behavior. This association is significant while controlling for later family instability and other demographic variables, such as socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and child IQ. This indicates that early family instability is directly related to adolescent behavior beyond the effects of continuing instability and other individual factors. Additionally, the level of future orientation was associated with adolescent risk-taking behavior for boys but not for girls. This indicates that for boys, lack of thoughts about one's future is predictive of risky behaviors in adolescence. Early family instability was not significantly related to future orientation, precluding future orientation as a mediator in the relation between early family instability and later problem behaviors. Family routine and peer deviance were not found to be significant moderators in this study. The results of this study indicate the important role family instability plays in adolescent behavior problems. These results demonstrate that experiences in the first five years of a child's life have potentially long-term effects on the individual. Additionally, future orientation appears to be a significant predictor of adolescent risk-taking behavior for boys. As risk-taking behavior may be detrimental to the individual's life and future, it is important to understand factors that predict risk taking. Future studies should examine the development of future orientation and its role in adolescent adjustment. / Psychology

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