Master of Arts / Department of Sociology, Anthropology, and Social Work / Nadia Shapkina / This study examines male-based sexual violence prevention programs on college campuses. In an effort to combat the widespread problem of sexual violence against college women, universities have implemented sexual assault prevention programs. While past programs have focused on risk-reduction strategies that target women, new programs are beginning to focus on approaching men to challenge hegemonic masculinity and gender social norms that are conducive to sexual violence. Thus far, the methods of these programs have not been studied in detail. This study uses interviews, observation, and document analysis to analyze the methods and messages of male-based sexual violence prevention programs at six universities in the United States. The research describes and analyzes the origins, goals, structures, strategies, success, and challenges of these programs. Their strengths and limitations are discussed, and suggestions and considerations for the programs are provided. As male-based violence prevention programs become more popular on college campuses, this research offers a deeper understanding of these programs that may inform and improve the effort to combat violence against college women.

This is a qualitative investigation into women’s awareness of sexual violence during emerging adulthood. Sexual violence refers to any sexual act that is experienced as a threat or violation and takes away an individual’s ability to control intimate contact (Adams, 2005). Current estimates suggest that one in six adult women in the United States has been the victim of rape or attempted rape in her life (Department of Justice, 2015). Women in emerging adulthood (18-28 years old) are three to four times more likely than all women to experience sexual assault, and sexual violence is more prevalent than other crimes on college campuses (Cantor, Fisher, Chinball, Townsend, Lee, 2015). Given the ubiquity of sexual violence, some researchers (e.g., Brison, 2002; Adams, 2005) have argued that the threat of sexual violence harms women. There is a growing body of literature, essays, documentaries, and news reports documenting college women’s experiences of sexual assault. However, the dearth of empirical psychological literature on the impact of women’s knowledge of the possibility of sexual violence impacts them has implications for practitioners and researchers working with women affected by sexual violence. Therefore, a phenomenological approach using semi-structured individual interviews was used in this qualitative investigation of how women in emerging adulthood are aware of the possibility of sexual violence. The study was guided by the following questions 1. How do women in emerging adulthood encounter sexual violence in their lives? 2. How are women in emerging adulthood taught to think about, prepare for, and deal with unwanted sexual encounters? 3. What social forces perpetuate rape culture? Six women in emerging adulthood and enrolled in university courses were interviewed for this study. During the interview process, participants described how they learned about sexual violence, how they think about it in the present day, how their awareness impacts their movement in the world, and how sexual violence impacts their relationships with others. The content of the interviews was analyzed using Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) as described by Smith, Flowers, and Larkin (2009). Results from the data analysis yielded four superordinate themes: (a) Lack of dialogue about sexual violence, (b) Living with the possibility of sexual assault, (c) Discrepant understandings of sexual violence, and (d) Sexual assault and interpersonal relationships. These themes reflect an awareness of sexual violence that is informed by dominant representations of what sexual assault looks like. Participants’ narratives reflect the struggle of trying to understand their own experiences of sexual violation in a culture that represents narrow depictions of what counts as sexual violence. The participants also expressed hope and optimism for change in the future.

The extant theories in PTSD describe significant initial symptom reactions, and these reactions may provide opportunities for clearer early identification and treatment of PTSD. There are empirically identified trajectories of PTSD, which indicates there is a critical starting point to those trajectories. Generally, theories and results suggest that the re-experiencing (Cluster B) and hyperarousal (Cluster E) symptoms are common reactions after traumatic events, while hyperarousal and negative cognitions and mood (Cluster D) clusters are generally identified as the most important and/or predictive. Thus, this dissertation utilized retrospective reports in order to identify initial symptom reactions and then subsequently predict PTSD severity over time. Participants included college women who experienced sexual and relationship violence within the past 2 years. Two primary hypotheses were investigated within the dissertation: 1) Cluster B and E symptoms were expected to be the most prevalent initial reactions reported, and 2) Clusters E and D were expected to significantly predict PTSD severity over time. The results indicated partial support for each hypothesis, such that Cluster B symptoms were among the most prevalent initial reactions and Cluster D was a significant predictor of PTSD severity over time. Specifically, earlier Cluster D ordering interacted with the presence of negative beliefs and loss of positive emotions to predict PTSD severity over time. / Doctor of Philosophy / There are ideas and theories about how posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) starts and gets worse. People develop PTSD in different ways; some develop it very quickly and it is very bad, while others develop it slowly and it may not affect them much at all. The first signs and symptoms may be the best place to look, much like when you first get a cough or a sore throat with a cold or the flu. Generally, research suggests that common reactions are re-living the trauma and having reactions like being on guard all the time. Being on guard all the time also may be one of those important symptoms that will help predict if someone will get PTSD, as well as experiencing things such as thinking harsh things about oneself. This dissertation included reports from people after they had experienced trauma in order to figure out those first symptoms. Then, it used those first symptoms to predict how bad their PTSD was in the weeks and months later. Participants included college women who experienced sexual assault and domestic violence within the past 2 years. The results showed that people often re-live the trauma, but it may not be the most important when predicting whether they will get PTSD or not. Negative thoughts and beliefs about oneself were the most important set of reactions when predicting who will get PTSD and how badly. More importantly, the earlier they had those negative thoughts, the worse their PTSD was in the coming weeks and months.

Sexuality is one of the most central elements of human existence. Throughout history, attacks on women have been common during armed conflict. Frequently military forces have viewed sexual violence as a spoil of war, a punishment to defeated populations, or as the deviance of rogue soldiers. However, there are conflicts in which sexual violence is used as a weapon. In these conflicts, sexual violence evolves from a facet of conflict to genocide. When a military force’s command utilizes systematic and widespread sexual violence as a weapon of war, in both intent and effect, it fulfills every condition of the Geneva Convention standards of genocide. Three cases are analyzed within this thesis: Chile under the Pinochet dictatorship, Rwanda during its genocide, and Bosnia during the break-up of the former Yugoslavia. Motivations for each of the conflicts varied. However, the constant in all three conflicts was the intended elimination of a specific group and the implementation of a policy of sexual violence in order to do so. In order for crimes to be considered genocide they must fulfill one of the following conditions, as stated in Article 2 of the Geneva Conventions, any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial, or religious group, as such: A. Killing members of the group; B. Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; C. Deliberately inflicting on the group the conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; D. Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; E. Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group. Egregious acts of sexual violence and torture were utilized by all three respective commands in order to murder, incur grievous mental and physical harms, destroy the group’s ability to procreate in the future and impose measures upon the group intended to bring about its end. This work demonstrates that irrespective of the cause of a conflict, when systematic and widespread sexual violence is used as a weapon of war, it is genocide.

Thesis advisor: Usha Tummala-Narra / Women who experience sexual violence are more likely to be diagnosed with a depressive, anxiety, trauma-related or substance use disorder than women who do not experience sexual violence (Kendler et al., 2000; Walsh et al., 2012). The negative mental health sequelae that are associated with experiences of sexual violence are related to the types of responses survivors receive from others (Carlson et al., 2002; Littleton, 2010). These responses are informed by attitudes towards sexual violence. Extant literature on Sri Lankan immigrant populations indicates that cultural and contextual factors interface to shape attitudes towards violence. Much of this research, however, has focused on domestic violence in general as opposed to sexual violence in particular. Thus, little is known about how culture and context interact to inform attitudes towards sexual violence in the Sri Lankan community in the United States. A qualitative methodology, guided by an ecological framework and South Asian feminist lens, was used to examine attitudes towards sexual violence among Sri Lankan immigrants in the United States. Participants consisted of 14 first-generation Sri Lankan immigrants. In semi-structured interviews, participants explicated 1) the cultural values and socialization patterns that they were exposed to in Sri Lanka, 2) their experiences of navigating Sri Lankan cultural values and socialization patterns in the United States, and 3) how cultural and contextual factors from pre- and post-migration contexts have interacted to inform views on sexual violence. The findings of the present study revealed that patriarchal socialization regarding gender roles, sex, and sexuality in Sri Lanka facilitates silence and stigmatization around sexual violence among Sri Lankans. The negotiation of these values within the post-migration context contributed to more progressive views on sexual violence. Participants did not support the presence of silence regarding sexual violence and, instead, encouraged survivors of sexual violence to seek help. They also recommended that survivors receive support from multiple sources (e.g., family, community, legal system). Implications for clinical practice, community level interventions and research are discussed. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2015. / Submitted to: Boston College. Lynch School of Education. / Discipline: Counseling, Developmental and Educational Psychology.

Magister Artium (Social Work) - MA(SW) / This study aimed to gain a deeper understanding of the lived experiences of adolescents with regard to sexual harassment within the school environment. It was considered in the light of actual cases reported on the Cape Flats in the Western Cape where adolescent girls sought counselling after being sexually harassed over a period of time, and were eventually sexually assaulted on their school grounds, by their peers. A qualitative methodological approach was utilised, and the sample was made up of nine adolescent females and one adolescent male between the ages of 15 and 17 years, who were asked to participate on a voluntary basis. Their selection followed purposive sampling at two selected high schools on the Cape Flats in the Western Cape. The research instrument used was an unstructured interview with an open-ended question to allow the participant to share openly and freely. Sound ethical considerations were taken into account throughout the study. Phenomenology was used as a theoretical framework and the data was analysed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA). The four key themes, or essence of the adolescents’ lived experiences, that emerged for the study were: (1) boys don’t respect girls’ sexuality, (2) boys demonstrate power over girls, (3) girls who are sexually harassed at school are publicly humiliated, (4) reporting procedures at schools are inadequate. From the themes I concluded that for the girls, key principles relating to human rights within the South African Constitution were being violated; namely, the right to non-discrimination, the right to human dignity and the right to a safe school environment. Recommendations were made that address the role of the national and regional education departments as well as that of social workers.

Ample research explores individual factors associated with sexual violence, yet individual, dyadic, and environmental influences on intimate partner sexual violence (IPSV) occurring in the larger context of non-intimate partner violence (NIPSV) remain relatively unexplored. The current study aimed to determine the extent to which county-level indicators in combination with individual and dyadic factors are associated with sexual violence across relationship types. Reported IPSV and NIPSV cases were obtained from the Tennessee Bureau of Investigation’s (TBI) online incident-based reporting system. County-level variables indicative of neighborhood physical disorder, violent crime, income inequality, firearm prevalence, and community alcohol use patterns were retrieved from the online resource County Health Rankings and Roadmaps. Using a nested case–control design, we determined significant sexual violence risk within younger cohorts and across relationship types, finding three significant county-level factors: 1) income inequality, 2) rate of firearm fatalities, and 3) percentage of female residents. Suggested prevention and intervention efforts include targeting younger age groups for IPSV and NIPSV education, developing resources for a range of relational partners, improving legal access and law enforcement training for reporting, and continued examination of the role of firearms.

Sexual violence is ubiquitous throughout the Anglophone West and shows no sign of abating. Feminist analysis has long demonstrated that this is a problem grounded in gender relations, patterns of masculine socialisation, and patriarchal social organisation. However, this thesis proposes that the roots of the Anglophone West’s rape culture also extend far beyond matters of gender and sexuality, deep into the core of the dominant culture itself. Setting feminist theory in dialogue with wider socio-cultural analysis, the research explores the complex relationships between the prevailing ideologies, ethics, systems, structures and practices of the dominant culture and the Anglophone West’s high incidence of sexual violence. In so doing, it reveals that, contrary to popular misconceptions, rape is neither a ‘natural’ nor a ‘savage’ act but a highly ‘civilised’ one which expresses the foundational philosophies of Anglophone Western culture in a sexualised, gendered form. Specifically, it shows that sexual objectification, which presents women as little more than ‘rapable bodies’, is part of a far wider pattern of normalised objectification developing from the Anglophone West’s underlying belief that some lives are worth less than others and so may be legitimately used and ‘consumed’ for personal gain. Expanding this to include analysis of men who commit sexual violence, it also establishes that perpetrators’ ‘rapist mentalities’, or the modes of thought and relation that enable and motivate rapists to commit rape, function as interpersonal, gendered expressions of the Anglophone West’s celebration of and reliance upon exploitation, conquest and coercive rule. Through these arguments, the thesis ultimately demonstrates that rape is not only an act of gender violence but also an inevitable manifestation of the dominant culture of the Anglophone West at large which can be fully addressed and challenged only by expanding analytical frameworks to include broad socio-cultural critiques and diverse social justice activism. In taking this position, the thesis expands understanding of rape beyond the limits of existing research and raises significant issues for both future scholarship and the ongoing struggle against sexual violence.

Background: Risk assessment of sexual violence involves evidence based evaluation of the risks posed by sexual offenders. It informs risk management; the provision of treatment that reduces the risk of future sexual violence. Previous research has focused on assessment of the predictive accuracy of different risk assessment tools, as well as the identification of risk factors that are associated with recidivism. In contrast, the clinical practice of risk assessment is a research area that has been neglected. The aim of this thesis was to explore the practice of risk assessment in a specialist sex offender liaison service (SOLS). Particular attention was paid to the structured professional judgement method of risk assessment. Method: A systematic review of the literature identified psychological factors associated with sexual recidivism in adult male offenders. Study 1 employed a cohort quantitative design and aimed to ascertain whether risk judgements made by the SOLS were predicted by factors that were identified by the systematic review (and previously existing meta-analyses) as being evidence based. Ordinal logistic regression and linear regression analyses (N = 96) were used to investigate the hypothesised predictive associations between variables. Study 2 utilised a qualitative framework analysis (N = 31) and aimed to explore the views of users of SOLS risk assessments with respect to their practical utility. Results: The systematic review suggested that psychopathy and sexual deviance were supported as risk factors for sexual recidivism. Inconsistent results were found with respect to denial. Study 1 found that psychopathy, denial, and sexual preoccupation were significantly associated with risk judgement scores made by the SOLS, while sexual deviance, and problems with intimate relationships, were not. The best explanatory model accounted for only 40 per cent of the variance in risk judgement score. Study 2 revealed five major themes: informing risk management; confirming what was known and giving weight; understanding personality; treatment; and the usefulness and limitations of risk assessment.

This thesis explores the multiple sexual discourses at the Claremont Colleges and the ways in which they create understanding of normative sexual behavior. It situates Claremont in the rising national consciousness and research on college student’s sexual behavior. It examines the dual discourses of sex and sexual violence, arguing that discussions of sexual violence have started to inform the every-day student discourses of sex. The data is drawn from Claremont media publications, and interviews with campus activist groups and individual students themselves. This thesis asserts that the dual narratives of sexual “pleasure and danger” in the national and Claremonts media sources are complicated by the discourses of Claremont students. The voices of individual students challenge the essentialized mainstream assumptions about the “hookup culture” and reveal that talking about sex plays a far more diverse and significant factor in the social fabric of student lives.