The mechanisms by which a geogrid acts to reinforce a granular layer over a soft clay were investigated with reference to trafficking of unpaved roads. The research involved a programme of physical testing at both model and full scale. Model tests were carried out for monotonic and cyclic loading of a dual footing on to a layer of granular material that was compacted over a consolidated kaolin sample. The tests were made in conditions of plane strain at a quarter scale, and included a scaled geogrid at the base of the granular layer. Measurements of footing load, displacements and photographic observations through a perspex front face to the test box were used to identify the reinforcing actions of the geogrid. A virtual work procedure was adopted in analysis of the results for both unreinforced and reinforced layers. The procedure accounts for lateral restraint of the subgrade and a membrane action in the reinforced tests, and allows a comparison of the cyclic test results with an equivalent monotonic bearing capacity. Load tests were also made on footing plates at full scale, involving a similar arrangement of compacted granular layers over prepared London clay and including a high strength polymer geogrid. Examination of the test results allowed a qualitative assessment of the model performance and the reinforcing mechanisms attributed to the geogrid.

The stress-strain behaviour of unsaturated soils containing discrete bubbles of gas has been studied in a programme of experimental and theoretical research. The research is of particular relevance to the offshore environment, where bubbles of methane, nitrogen and carbon dioxide are formed within the seabed by the decomposition of organic matter. The presence of these gas bubbles can have a major influence on the engineering properties of the soil. As gas bubbles in marine sediments are typically much larger than the normal void spaces, the bubbles cannot be considered as simply changing the compressibility of the pore fluid. Chapters 2 to 4 describe a series of undrained triaxial tests on reconstituted samples of clayey silt from an estuarine site. Bubbles of methane were formed within the soil by using a chemical technique. The test results provide evidence of the effect of gas bubbles on the undrained shear strength, together with useful information on the stress-strain behaviour prior to failure, the generation of pore pressures during shearing, the elastic moduli and the isotropic consolidation behaviour. A theoretical model for soils containing large gas bubbles is developed in Chapter 5. The model consists of spherical bubble cavities surrounded by a matrix of saturated soil. In the following three chapters various aspects of the soil behaviour are examined by analysing the theoretical model. Chapter 6 covers the elastic moduli, Chapter 7 the consolidation behaviour and Chapter 8 the undrained shear strength. In Chapter 9 the predictions of the theoretical model are compared with the experimental results. The agreement between theory and experiment is excellent, suggesting that the theoretical approach developed and analysed in Chapters 5 to 8 is a reasonable model for the behaviour of soils containing large gas bubbles.

This thesis presents the results of an investigation into soil-reinforcement interaction by means of direct shear and pull-out tests. Scale and other factors affecting test results were studied; for this purpose an apparatus able to contain a 1 cu.m sample of sand was designed by the author in order to perform large scale tests. Plastic and metal sheet and grid reinforcements were used in conjunction with Leighton Buzzard sand. Direct Shear tests on unreinforced sand samples showed that soil strength parameters were not affected by the test scale, although the post peak behaviour and the shear band thickness at the centre of the sample were significantly affected by the scale of the test. The presence of a reinforcement layer inclined to the central plane of the box had a marked effect on the strength and behaviour of the sample. The reinforcement increased the vertical stress and inhibited the shear strain development in the central region of the sample. The behaviour of the reinforced sample was found to depend on the type and form of the reinforcement as well as its mechanical properties. Pull-out test results can be severely affected by boundary conditions, in particular by the friction on the front wall of the box. The results obtained in the series of tests showed that interference between grid bearing members is the main factor conditioning the pull-out resistance of a grid reinforcement. The intensity of such interference was quantified on the basis of results obtained in tests using single isolated bearing members and grids with different geometric characteristics. An expression for the bond coefficient between soil and grid, taking into account the degree of interference, was suggested. It was also observed that the maximum bearing pressure exhibited by a bearing member depends on the ratio of the member diameter to the mean particle size.

Usualmente as propriedades do solo não são adequadas às características e às necessidades de projeto. É apresentada, como alternativa, a técnica de reforço com inclusão de elementos fibrosos à matriz de solo. Nesse sentido, a análise do comportamento mecânico de um solo micro-reforçado com fibras de distintos índices aspecto é objetivada. Para tanto, uma célula de compressão triaxial com medidas internas de deformações é construída, instrumentada e calibrada para realização de ensaios, sob trajetórias de tensões convencionais, em amostras com 100mm de diâmetro e 200mm de altura. O solo, uma areia fina, de granulometria uniforme, é reforçado com fibras de polipropileno com diferentes comprimentos, 12, 24, 36 e 50mm, e diferentes diâmetros, 0,023 e 0,100mm, equivalentes a índices aspecto entre 120 e 2174. As amostras apresentam densidade relativa de 50%, teor de umidade de 10% e adição de 0,5% de fibras em relação à massa de solo seco. Os resultados demonstram a eficácia da utilização do reforço no ganho de resistência das amostras em relação ao material nãoreforçado. Dessa forma, os parâmetros de resistência da matriz reforçada apresentam notável aumento. Os valores de ângulo de atrito interno das misturas não são influenciados pelo índice aspecto das fibras. Em contrapartida, os valores de intercepto coesivo dos compósitos são fortemente influenciados pelo índice aspecto dos reforços. Ainda, é verificado um valor de índice aspecto a partir do qual o compósito passa a apresentar comportamento de enrijecimento mais pronunciado, em torno de 300 neste estudo. É verificado, também, que a rigidez da areia não é alterada pela inclusão dos micro-reforços. Semelhantemente, o comportamento dilatante da areia não é sensivelmente afetado pela adição de fibras. Todavia, a relação de tensões final das misturas é reduzida com o aumento da tensão confinante e ampliada com o aumento do índice aspecto das fibras. Por fim, a medida dos comprimentos das fibras antes e após a realização dos ensaios mostra que os reforços não rompem por tração. A interação entre a matriz de solo e as fibras se dá através do deslizamento e do alongamento das fibras. / The study of the mechanical behavior of a soil micro-reinforced with distinct aspect ratios fibers is the purpose of this investigation. Thus, a triaxial compression cell is built and drained standard triaxial tests on 100mm diameter and 200mm high specimens are carried out. The soil, a uniform fine sand, is reinforced with polypropylene fibers with different lengths, 12, 24, 36 and 50mm, different diameters, 0.023 and 0.100mm, and consequently with a large spectrum of aspect ratios, up to about 2200. The samples are compacted to a relative density of 50% and a water content of 10% with a fiber content of 0.5% by weight of soil. The results show the effectiveness of fiber reinforcement in the strength increase of the samples compared to non-reinforced material. Thus, the parameters of resistance of the reinforced matrix exhibit remarkable increase. The values of mixtures friction angles are not influenced by aspect ratio of the fibers. However, the values of cohesive intercepts of the composites are strongly influenced by fibers aspect ratio. In addition, it is found an aspect ratio value from which the composites present more pronounced strain hardening features, around 300 in this study. It is also found that sand stiffness is not influenced by the micro-reinforcements inclusion. Similarly, the dilation behavior of sand is not significantly affected by fibers addition. However, the mixtures final stress ratio is reduced with the confining pressure increase and with the decrease of fibers aspect ratio value. Finally, the measurement of fiber lengths before and after the tests shows that the reinforcements do not break in tension. The failure is a composite of slippage and yielding of fibers.

Usualmente as propriedades do solo não são adequadas às características e às necessidades de projeto. É apresentada, como alternativa, a técnica de reforço com inclusão de elementos fibrosos à matriz de solo. Nesse sentido, a análise do comportamento mecânico de um solo micro-reforçado com fibras de distintos índices aspecto é objetivada. Para tanto, uma célula de compressão triaxial com medidas internas de deformações é construída, instrumentada e calibrada para realização de ensaios, sob trajetórias de tensões convencionais, em amostras com 100mm de diâmetro e 200mm de altura. O solo, uma areia fina, de granulometria uniforme, é reforçado com fibras de polipropileno com diferentes comprimentos, 12, 24, 36 e 50mm, e diferentes diâmetros, 0,023 e 0,100mm, equivalentes a índices aspecto entre 120 e 2174. As amostras apresentam densidade relativa de 50%, teor de umidade de 10% e adição de 0,5% de fibras em relação à massa de solo seco. Os resultados demonstram a eficácia da utilização do reforço no ganho de resistência das amostras em relação ao material nãoreforçado. Dessa forma, os parâmetros de resistência da matriz reforçada apresentam notável aumento. Os valores de ângulo de atrito interno das misturas não são influenciados pelo índice aspecto das fibras. Em contrapartida, os valores de intercepto coesivo dos compósitos são fortemente influenciados pelo índice aspecto dos reforços. Ainda, é verificado um valor de índice aspecto a partir do qual o compósito passa a apresentar comportamento de enrijecimento mais pronunciado, em torno de 300 neste estudo. É verificado, também, que a rigidez da areia não é alterada pela inclusão dos micro-reforços. Semelhantemente, o comportamento dilatante da areia não é sensivelmente afetado pela adição de fibras. Todavia, a relação de tensões final das misturas é reduzida com o aumento da tensão confinante e ampliada com o aumento do índice aspecto das fibras. Por fim, a medida dos comprimentos das fibras antes e após a realização dos ensaios mostra que os reforços não rompem por tração. A interação entre a matriz de solo e as fibras se dá através do deslizamento e do alongamento das fibras. / The study of the mechanical behavior of a soil micro-reinforced with distinct aspect ratios fibers is the purpose of this investigation. Thus, a triaxial compression cell is built and drained standard triaxial tests on 100mm diameter and 200mm high specimens are carried out. The soil, a uniform fine sand, is reinforced with polypropylene fibers with different lengths, 12, 24, 36 and 50mm, different diameters, 0.023 and 0.100mm, and consequently with a large spectrum of aspect ratios, up to about 2200. The samples are compacted to a relative density of 50% and a water content of 10% with a fiber content of 0.5% by weight of soil. The results show the effectiveness of fiber reinforcement in the strength increase of the samples compared to non-reinforced material. Thus, the parameters of resistance of the reinforced matrix exhibit remarkable increase. The values of mixtures friction angles are not influenced by aspect ratio of the fibers. However, the values of cohesive intercepts of the composites are strongly influenced by fibers aspect ratio. In addition, it is found an aspect ratio value from which the composites present more pronounced strain hardening features, around 300 in this study. It is also found that sand stiffness is not influenced by the micro-reinforcements inclusion. Similarly, the dilation behavior of sand is not significantly affected by fibers addition. However, the mixtures final stress ratio is reduced with the confining pressure increase and with the decrease of fibers aspect ratio value. Finally, the measurement of fiber lengths before and after the tests shows that the reinforcements do not break in tension. The failure is a composite of slippage and yielding of fibers.

Este trabalho apresenta resultados de ensaios de fluência de geotêxteis não tecidos executados em ensaios confinados. No equipamento utilizado, o reforço é confinado entre camadas de solo, permitindo que ambos os materiais tenham liberdade para apresentar deformações ao longo do tempo. Nesses ensaios, uma tensão vertical é aplicada ao solo que por sua vez solicita o reforço. Os ensaios foram realizados com três geotêxteis não tecidos, sendo dois de polipropileno e um de poliéster, e quatro tipos de solo confinante: três materiais granulares e uma argila silto-arenosa. Além disso, também foram executados ensaios de fluência não confinada para permitir comparação com os ensaios confinados. Os resultados indicaram que houve grande contribuição do confinamento na redução das deformações por fluência dos materiais ensaiados. Também foi avaliada a influência de alguns fatores na fluência confinada dos geotêxteis não tecidos, tais como: tipo de solo, tipo de geotêxtil e gramatura do reforço. Tais resultados são interessantes para avaliar o potencial de fluência do composto solo-geotêxtil que, normalmente, é baseado somente em ensaios no elemento isolado de reforço / This work presents results of creep tests on no woven geotextiles tested in confined lab tests. In the used equipment, the reinforcement is confined between two soil layers, allowing both materials to have freedom to deform with time. In those tests, a vertical stress is applied to the soil that transfers load to the reinforcement. The tests were performed using three no woven geotextiles, two of polypropylene and one of polyester, and four types of confining soil: three granular materials and sandy silty clay. Besides, unconfined creep tests were carried out to allow comparison with the confined tests. The results indicated that there was great contribution of the confinement in the reduction of the creep deformations of the tested materials. Also the influence of some factors was evaluated in the confined creep of the no woven geotextiles, such as: soil type, type of geotextile and mass per unit area of the reinforcement. Such results allow the evaluation of the potential of creep of the system soil-geotextile

Este trabalho aborda o comportamento de dois solos (uma argila e uma areia), reforçados com fibras plásticas de polipropileno. Os solos foram compactados no teor de umidade ótimo e peso específico seco máximo e foram misturados com fibras de diferentes teores e comprimentos. Os resultados dos ensaios de compressão simples foram usados para selecionar os teores e comprimentos ótimos de fibras. Os resultados mostraram que a resistência do solo arenoso cresceu com o aumento do teor e comprimento das fibras e o solo argiloso apresentou acréscimo de resistência, com o aumento do teor até o comprimento de fibra de 10 mm. As curvas tensão-deformação dos ensaios triaxiais, para solos com e sem reforço foram similares, com uma resistência de pico definida e pequena redução de queda de tensão pós pico. As amostras de solo arenoso apresentaram considerável aumento de resistência, com o aumento do teor e comprimento das fibras. Pequenos painéis, fabricados com o solo argiloso (300 x 300 x 100) mm, mostraram que a presença da fibra pode reduzir a magnitude das trincas quando comparados com o solo sem reforço. / This work presents the behavior of two soils (clay and sandy) reinforced with polypropylene plastic fibers. The soils were compacted at the optimum moisture content and maximum dry unit weight and were mixed with fibers of different lengths and contents. Unconfined compressive tests results were used to select the optimum fiber length and content. The results showed that the granular soil strength increased with increasing fiber length and content. The cohesive soil, on the other hand, showed strength up to fiber length of 10 mm. Stress - strain curves from triaxial tests for both reinforced and unreinforced cohesive soil were similar with a defined peak strength and small post peak reduction. Granular soil samples presented considerable strength increases with the increases of length and fiber content. Small panels fabricated with the reinforced cohesive soil (300 x 300 x 100) mm, showed that the presence of fiber can reduce crack magnitude when compared with the unreinforced soil.

Usualmente as propriedades do solo não são adequadas às características e às necessidades de projeto. É apresentada, como alternativa, a técnica de reforço com inclusão de elementos fibrosos à matriz de solo. Nesse sentido, a análise do comportamento mecânico de um solo micro-reforçado com fibras de distintos índices aspecto é objetivada. Para tanto, uma célula de compressão triaxial com medidas internas de deformações é construída, instrumentada e calibrada para realização de ensaios, sob trajetórias de tensões convencionais, em amostras com 100mm de diâmetro e 200mm de altura. O solo, uma areia fina, de granulometria uniforme, é reforçado com fibras de polipropileno com diferentes comprimentos, 12, 24, 36 e 50mm, e diferentes diâmetros, 0,023 e 0,100mm, equivalentes a índices aspecto entre 120 e 2174. As amostras apresentam densidade relativa de 50%, teor de umidade de 10% e adição de 0,5% de fibras em relação à massa de solo seco. Os resultados demonstram a eficácia da utilização do reforço no ganho de resistência das amostras em relação ao material nãoreforçado. Dessa forma, os parâmetros de resistência da matriz reforçada apresentam notável aumento. Os valores de ângulo de atrito interno das misturas não são influenciados pelo índice aspecto das fibras. Em contrapartida, os valores de intercepto coesivo dos compósitos são fortemente influenciados pelo índice aspecto dos reforços. Ainda, é verificado um valor de índice aspecto a partir do qual o compósito passa a apresentar comportamento de enrijecimento mais pronunciado, em torno de 300 neste estudo. É verificado, também, que a rigidez da areia não é alterada pela inclusão dos micro-reforços. Semelhantemente, o comportamento dilatante da areia não é sensivelmente afetado pela adição de fibras. Todavia, a relação de tensões final das misturas é reduzida com o aumento da tensão confinante e ampliada com o aumento do índice aspecto das fibras. Por fim, a medida dos comprimentos das fibras antes e após a realização dos ensaios mostra que os reforços não rompem por tração. A interação entre a matriz de solo e as fibras se dá através do deslizamento e do alongamento das fibras. / The study of the mechanical behavior of a soil micro-reinforced with distinct aspect ratios fibers is the purpose of this investigation. Thus, a triaxial compression cell is built and drained standard triaxial tests on 100mm diameter and 200mm high specimens are carried out. The soil, a uniform fine sand, is reinforced with polypropylene fibers with different lengths, 12, 24, 36 and 50mm, different diameters, 0.023 and 0.100mm, and consequently with a large spectrum of aspect ratios, up to about 2200. The samples are compacted to a relative density of 50% and a water content of 10% with a fiber content of 0.5% by weight of soil. The results show the effectiveness of fiber reinforcement in the strength increase of the samples compared to non-reinforced material. Thus, the parameters of resistance of the reinforced matrix exhibit remarkable increase. The values of mixtures friction angles are not influenced by aspect ratio of the fibers. However, the values of cohesive intercepts of the composites are strongly influenced by fibers aspect ratio. In addition, it is found an aspect ratio value from which the composites present more pronounced strain hardening features, around 300 in this study. It is also found that sand stiffness is not influenced by the micro-reinforcements inclusion. Similarly, the dilation behavior of sand is not significantly affected by fibers addition. However, the mixtures final stress ratio is reduced with the confining pressure increase and with the decrease of fibers aspect ratio value. Finally, the measurement of fiber lengths before and after the tests shows that the reinforcements do not break in tension. The failure is a composite of slippage and yielding of fibers.

A team from Brigham Young University and I performed full-scale lateral load tests on individual and grouped 12.75x0.375 inch pipe piles spaced at varying distances behind an MSE wall. The individually loaded pile which acted as a control was spaced at 4.0 pile diameters from the wall face, and the three grouped piles which were loaded in unison were spaced at 3.0, 2.8, and 1.8 pile diameters from the wall face and transversely spaced at 4.7 pile diameters center-to-center. The purpose of these tests was to determine the extent of group effects on lateral pile resistance, induced loads in soil reinforcements, and MSE wall panel deflections compared to those previously observed in individually laterally loaded piles behind MSE walls. The computer model LPILE was used in my analysis of the measured test data. The p-multipliers back-calculated with LPILE for the grouped piles were 0.25, 0.60, and 0.25 for the grouped piles spaced at 3.0, 2.8, and 1.8 pile diameters from the wall, respectively. These values are lower than that predicted for piles at the same pile-to-wall spacings using the most recent equation for computing p-multipliers. I propose the use of an additional p-multiplier for grouped piles near an MSE wall, a group-effect p-multiplier, to account for discrepancies between individual and grouped pile behaviors. The group effect p-multipliers were 0.35, 0.91, and 0.74 for the grouped piles spaced at 3.0, 2.8, and 1.8 pile diameters from the wall, respectively. The average group-effect p-multiplier was 0.66. Additionally, I used LPILE to analyze test data from Pierson et al. (2009), who had previously performed full-scale lateral load tests of individual and grouped shafts. In said analysis, the group of three 3-foot diameter concrete shafts spaced at 2.0 shaft diameters from the wall face and transversely spaced at 5.0 shaft diameters center-to-center had an average group effect p-multiplier of 0.78. As in previous studies, the induced forces in soil reinforcements in this study were greatest either near the locations of the test piles or at the MSE wall face. The most recent equation for calculating the maximum induced force in a soil reinforcement strip was reasonably effective in predicting the measured maximum loads when superimposed between the test piles, with 65% and 85% of the data points falling within the one and two standard deviation boundaries, respectively, of the original data used to develop the equation. Deflection of the MSE wall panels was greater during the grouped pile test than was previously observed for individually loaded piles under similar pile head deflections--with a maximum wall deflection of 0.31 inch compared to the previous average of 0.10 inch for pile head deflections of about 1.25 inches.

Reinforced piled embankment technique is becoming increasingly utilised for the construction over soft grounds. Most of the studies focused on studying the behaviour of piled embankments that are loaded with static surcharge load. However, less attention has been given to the behaviour of piled embankments under cyclic loading conditions. In this study, an experimental programme has been undertaken to improve our understanding for the behaviour of unreinforced and reinforced shallow piled embankments subject to cyclic loadings that are applied over a specific area of the embankment. The results showed that arching of the soil was adversely affected during the initial stages of cyclic loading regardless of the embankment height. However, regain of strength and recovery of the arching effect was observable during further stages of cyclic loadings. Inclusion of reinforcement layers was found to enhance the performance of load transfer mechanisms. The surface settlement increased with raising the embankment height and reduced with increasing the number of reinforcement layers. Two preliminary experimental studies have been carried out in order to be able to understand and design the main experiment. The results showed that with increasing number of reinforcement layers, enormous cycles of loading could be applied without experiencing excessive deformation or loss of bearing resistance. Furthermore, it was observed that alternating the direction of movement significantly affected the formation of arching during the initial cycles irrespective of the embankment height. / Higher Education Institute of the Libyan Government