Estruturas alteadas são fortemente afetadas pelas ações naturais, que são por sinal, as ações de maior complexidade na engenharia estrutural em função do grande número de variáveis envolvidas. O vento é uma destas ações e também uma das mais importantes em condições gerais. Em projeto, a ação do vento é normalmente considerada através das indicações normativas de cada país, que são, em função de sua complexidade, descritas na forma de métodos estático equivalentes, suficientes para maioria dos casos. Este critério não difere ao se tratar de linhas de transmissão, no entanto, grande parte das normas do mundo basearam-se no comportamento das torres autoportantes, mas que vêm sendo igualmente utilizadas em projetos de torres estaiadas. Por este motivo, se propõe a análise estatística de esforços de uma torre estaiada, modelada em conjunto com os demais componentes de uma linha de transmissão, de modo a compará-los aos resultados obtidos pelo método estático equivalente da IEC 60826 (IEC 2003). A hipótese de carregamento estudada é a ação transversal do vento na linha. Na simulação numérica, diversos campos aleatórios de velocidades são gerados, sendo as ações também calculadas pela formulação da norma IEC 60826. Os campos foram gerados por dois diferentes métodos, o método de Deodatis (1996) e método de Riera e Ambrosini (1992), ambos baseados no método de superposição de ondas. O espectro de velocidades utilizado neste trabalho é o espectro de Davenport. Apesar de saber da importância de outras fontes de não linearidades, foram consideradas neste trabalho: a não linearidade geométrica dos componentes, computada automaticamente com o uso do método de integração explícito por diferenças finitas centrais, e a não linearidade física dos cabos suspensos. Diferentes parâmetros de amortecimento foram testados para os componentes estruturais. Nos resultados é possível observar que a IEC 60826 mostrou-se suficiente na estimativa de esforços da maioria dos elementos analisados, no entanto, nas barras pertencentes ao mastro da torre verificaram-se valores normativos inferiores aos calculados pelo método numérico. Nestas barras, a diferença chegou a aproximadamente 22% pelo método de Deodatis (1996) e a 12% pelo método de Riera e Ambrosini (1992), ambos na configuração de menor amortecimento testada e para o intervalo de confiança de 98%. / High structures are strongly affected by natural loads, which are the most complexity loads in the structural engineering due the large number of variables involved. The wind is one of these actions and one of the most important in general conditions. In design, the action of wind is normally accounted through the country‟s standards indications which, due to its complexity, are usually descripted by equivalent static methods, enough in the most cases. This criterion does not differ for transmission lines, however, the most of standards in the world were based on the self-support towers behavior, but they are also being used for guyed towers design. Therefore, in this study is proposed a statistic analysis of internal forces in the guyed tower elements, modeled together with the other transmission lines components, in order to compare them with the results obtained by equivalent static method of IEC 60826 (IEC 2003). The load hypothesis is the across wind action. In the numerical simulation, several random velocity fields were generated, the actions being calculated by the formulation of IEC 60826 standard. The fields were generated by two different methods, the method of Deodatis (1996) and the method of Riera and Ambrosini (1992), both of them are based in the wave superimposition method. The power wind spectrum (PSD) used in this work is the Davenport‟s spectrum. Although knowing the importance of other nonlinearities, were considered in this work: the geometric non-linearity of all elements, which are automatically computed by explicitly integration method by central finite differences used, and the physic non-linearity of suspended cables. Different damping rates were considered for the structural components. In the results, it is possible to observe that the IEC 60826 was enough in the estimation of internal forces on the majority of elements analyzed, however, on the tower mast bars were verified normative values smaller than those obtained by numerical method. In these bars, the difference among analyses reached 22% by Deodatis (1996) method and 12% by Riera e Ambrosini (1992) method, both of them considering the lower tested damping configuration and the 98% confidence interval.

After the notorious outbreak and discovery of Legionella bacteria in 1976, the waterborne pathogen was added to the list of disease-causing agents associated with the built environment. Legionella pneumophila was discovered when it was identified as the agent that caused 34 deaths and an outbreak of pneumonia-like symptoms in several attendees of the 1976 American Legion Convention held in Philadelphia (OSHA, 2017). Recently published data from the year 2015 reported more than 6,000 Legionnaires’ cases identified in the United States (CDC, 2016). This is a concerning number given that one in every ten infected persons will die of the disease. It is believed that case numbers are likely under-reported, given that Legionnaires’ disease is very difficult to diagnose. Legionella species live naturally in bodies of water, including lakes and rivers. Legionnaires’ disease has been associated with the introduction of Legionella into manmade water systems. The presence of Legionella has been reported in cooling towers, domestic hot-water systems, humidifiers, decorative fountains, grocery spray misters, spas, whirlpools, and dental water lines, among other systems housing stagnant water (CDC, OSHA, 2017). From an occupational exposure standpoint, cooling towers are considered the most concerning source of Legionella pneumophila exposures, based on data from previous cases (Principe et al., 2017). The purpose of this research was to measure the effectiveness of biocide substitution and maintenance management in evaporative condensers. Such condensers were previously identified as having high counts of Legionella pneumophila in the water and/or on surfaces. The study sites were in the states of Florida and Georgia. Initial water testing for Legionella was carried out between July and August of 2016. Results from 2016 showed high counts of colony forming units (CFU) per millimeter (mL) at baseline assessment. An intervention of biocide substitution and enhanced management planning was recommended to lower or eliminate L. pneumophila from the water basins of the evaporative condensers. Follow-up results of water sampling conducted between July and August 2017 showed reduction of CFU counts after the intervention plan had been implemented for an entire year.

Durante a implantação do sistema de telefonia celular no Brasil, milhares de torres foram projetadas por profissionais que utilizaram modelos inadequados para a consideração dos efeitos dinâmicos do vento. Devido a este fato, problemas estruturais têm sido freqüentes. Este trabalho é motivado pela falta de material na literatura para auxiliar o projetista a especificar as características geométricas e mecânicas deste tipo de estrutura. São abordados todos os aspectos envolvidos no projeto de uma torre de telecomunicações: normas, características de cada tipo de torre, de aço ou de concreto, além de uma pesquisa junto a empresas fabricantes com o objetivo de levantar dados sobre o peso dos diferentes tipos de torre. Este tipo de informação é de grande valia para a avaliação da viabilidade de projetos ou para o desenvolvimento de novos tipos de estruturas. Diante das vantagens e desvantagens das soluções existentes, este trabalho apresenta um modelo de torre que une a alta relação momento de inércia - área de seção transversal das torres em treliças ao baixo carregamento devido ao vento dos postes, para alturas de 40 m e 70 m. A viabilidade destes projetos é indicada pela comparação de seu peso com o de estruturas pesquisadas. Após descrever natureza do vento e as formas de obter e aplicar as forças dinâmicas associadas, além da obtenção de resposta de estruturas a estas excitações, é proposto um código numérico para a realização deste tipo de análise. Neste código, o processo de integração numérica é executado tanto pelo método de Newmark, como por Diferenças Finitas. Pode ser considerada não-linearidade geométrica pelo efeito do esforço axial e da variação das coordenadas nodais sobre a matriz de rigidez. São ainda avaliados por este algoritmo incertezas de modelo inseridas pela forma de determinação do vento turbulento e pela consideração da flexibilidade das fundações. A inclusão de amortecedores de atrito à estrutura é, da mesma forma, analisada. / During the implantation of cellular telephony in Brazil, thousands of towers were designed by professionals who used models unsuitable for the consideration of wind dynamic effects. Because of this, structural problems have been frequent. This work is motivated by data lack in literature to help the designer to specify geometric and mechanical characteristics of this structure category. It is discussed every aspect involved in telecommunications tower design: standards, characteristics, materials and a search in the manufacturers to obtain data about weight of the different types of towers. These informations are important to evaluate the project feasibility or to develop new models of structures. Front advantages and disadvantages of existing solutions, this work presents a tower project that adjoins the ratio moment of inertia - cross section area from truss towers and the low wind loading from the poles, to 40 and 70 m towers height . The viability of these projects is estimated by comparing its weight with data searched. After describing nature of the wind and how to obtain and apply the dynamic forces involved, how to obtaining response of structures to these excitation, it is proposed a numerical code to carrying out this analysis. In this code, the integration process is performed by the Newmark and finite differences numerical methods. It can be considered the geometrical non-linearity considering on the stiffness matrix the axial stress effect and nodal coordinates variation. Uncertainties inserted by turbulent wind determining and the foundations flexibility consideration are also evaluated by this algorithm. Friction dampers inclusion is, similarly, examined.

Estruturas alteadas são fortemente afetadas pelas ações naturais, que são por sinal, as ações de maior complexidade na engenharia estrutural em função do grande número de variáveis envolvidas. O vento é uma destas ações e também uma das mais importantes em condições gerais. Em projeto, a ação do vento é normalmente considerada através das indicações normativas de cada país, que são, em função de sua complexidade, descritas na forma de métodos estático equivalentes, suficientes para maioria dos casos. Este critério não difere ao se tratar de linhas de transmissão, no entanto, grande parte das normas do mundo basearam-se no comportamento das torres autoportantes, mas que vêm sendo igualmente utilizadas em projetos de torres estaiadas. Por este motivo, se propõe a análise estatística de esforços de uma torre estaiada, modelada em conjunto com os demais componentes de uma linha de transmissão, de modo a compará-los aos resultados obtidos pelo método estático equivalente da IEC 60826 (IEC 2003). A hipótese de carregamento estudada é a ação transversal do vento na linha. Na simulação numérica, diversos campos aleatórios de velocidades são gerados, sendo as ações também calculadas pela formulação da norma IEC 60826. Os campos foram gerados por dois diferentes métodos, o método de Deodatis (1996) e método de Riera e Ambrosini (1992), ambos baseados no método de superposição de ondas. O espectro de velocidades utilizado neste trabalho é o espectro de Davenport. Apesar de saber da importância de outras fontes de não linearidades, foram consideradas neste trabalho: a não linearidade geométrica dos componentes, computada automaticamente com o uso do método de integração explícito por diferenças finitas centrais, e a não linearidade física dos cabos suspensos. Diferentes parâmetros de amortecimento foram testados para os componentes estruturais. Nos resultados é possível observar que a IEC 60826 mostrou-se suficiente na estimativa de esforços da maioria dos elementos analisados, no entanto, nas barras pertencentes ao mastro da torre verificaram-se valores normativos inferiores aos calculados pelo método numérico. Nestas barras, a diferença chegou a aproximadamente 22% pelo método de Deodatis (1996) e a 12% pelo método de Riera e Ambrosini (1992), ambos na configuração de menor amortecimento testada e para o intervalo de confiança de 98%. / High structures are strongly affected by natural loads, which are the most complexity loads in the structural engineering due the large number of variables involved. The wind is one of these actions and one of the most important in general conditions. In design, the action of wind is normally accounted through the country‟s standards indications which, due to its complexity, are usually descripted by equivalent static methods, enough in the most cases. This criterion does not differ for transmission lines, however, the most of standards in the world were based on the self-support towers behavior, but they are also being used for guyed towers design. Therefore, in this study is proposed a statistic analysis of internal forces in the guyed tower elements, modeled together with the other transmission lines components, in order to compare them with the results obtained by equivalent static method of IEC 60826 (IEC 2003). The load hypothesis is the across wind action. In the numerical simulation, several random velocity fields were generated, the actions being calculated by the formulation of IEC 60826 standard. The fields were generated by two different methods, the method of Deodatis (1996) and the method of Riera and Ambrosini (1992), both of them are based in the wave superimposition method. The power wind spectrum (PSD) used in this work is the Davenport‟s spectrum. Although knowing the importance of other nonlinearities, were considered in this work: the geometric non-linearity of all elements, which are automatically computed by explicitly integration method by central finite differences used, and the physic non-linearity of suspended cables. Different damping rates were considered for the structural components. In the results, it is possible to observe that the IEC 60826 was enough in the estimation of internal forces on the majority of elements analyzed, however, on the tower mast bars were verified normative values smaller than those obtained by numerical method. In these bars, the difference among analyses reached 22% by Deodatis (1996) method and 12% by Riera e Ambrosini (1992) method, both of them considering the lower tested damping configuration and the 98% confidence interval.

Orientador: Sérgio Kurokawa / Resumo: Este trabalho apresenta uma proposta de modelagem de torres de transmissão convencionais e gigantes diretamente no domínio do tempo cujas admitâncias dessas torres são representadas por elementos discretos de circuito. A partir dessa representação, pode-se cálcular as tensões provocadas por descargas atmosféricas incidentes no topo de cada torre de transmissão. Nessa proposta, as tensões produzidas nas estruturas de cada torre de transmissão são obtidas diretamente no domínio do tempo com a utilização de programas convencionais de análise eletromagnética, evitando-se assim transformações inversas Laplace ou Fourier. Essa modelagem consiste inicialmente em calcular a admitância de qualquer torre de transmissão, no domínio da frequência, empregando o Método dos Momentos (MoM), levando em consideração os aspectos geométricos das torres, as resistividades do solo e o sistema de aterramento. Uma vez obtidas as admitâncias das torres de transmissão convencionais e gigantes, essas curvas são representadas por funções racionais obtidas pela técnica do Vector Fitting e em seguida, um circuito elétrico discreto equivalente é sintetizado para gerar a respectiva admitância calculada numericamente. Uma vez sintetizado, esses circuitos serão analisados em softwares de simulação de transitórios eletromagnéticos e as tensões induzidas em cada torre são estimadas. Nessa proposta, são consideradas a inclusão das treliças das torres, do sistema de aterramentos em distintas resistividades do sol... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: This work presents a proposal for modeling conventional and giant transmission towers directly in the time domain whose admittances of these structures are represented by lumped circuit elements. From this representation, one can calculate voltages caused by lightning striking at the top of each transmission tower. In this proposal, voltages produced in each transmission tower are obtained directly in the time domain using electromagnetic analysis programs, which does not require inverse Laplace or Fourier transformations. This modeling initially consists of calculating the admittance of any transmission tower in the frequency domain using the Moment Method (MoM), taking into account the tower geometry, soil resistivities and tower-footing grounding impedance. Once the admittances of the conventional and giant transmission towers are obtained, these curves are represented by rational functions obtained by the Vector Fitting technique and then an equivalent lumped electric circuit is proposed for each curve calculated numerically. These circuits will be analyzed in electromagnetic transient software and the voltages due lightning strikes in each tower are estimated. In this proposal, the inclusion of the tower trusses, homogenous soils and grounding electrodes are considered, and the responses are more precisely obtained. A comparison between the voltages obtained by the proposed modeling and the conventional models is also presented. In these comparisons, it can be seen that ... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Doutor

Durante a implantação do sistema de telefonia celular no Brasil, milhares de torres foram projetadas por profissionais que utilizaram modelos inadequados para a consideração dos efeitos dinâmicos do vento. Devido a este fato, problemas estruturais têm sido freqüentes. Este trabalho é motivado pela falta de material na literatura para auxiliar o projetista a especificar as características geométricas e mecânicas deste tipo de estrutura. São abordados todos os aspectos envolvidos no projeto de uma torre de telecomunicações: normas, características de cada tipo de torre, de aço ou de concreto, além de uma pesquisa junto a empresas fabricantes com o objetivo de levantar dados sobre o peso dos diferentes tipos de torre. Este tipo de informação é de grande valia para a avaliação da viabilidade de projetos ou para o desenvolvimento de novos tipos de estruturas. Diante das vantagens e desvantagens das soluções existentes, este trabalho apresenta um modelo de torre que une a alta relação momento de inércia - área de seção transversal das torres em treliças ao baixo carregamento devido ao vento dos postes, para alturas de 40 m e 70 m. A viabilidade destes projetos é indicada pela comparação de seu peso com o de estruturas pesquisadas. Após descrever natureza do vento e as formas de obter e aplicar as forças dinâmicas associadas, além da obtenção de resposta de estruturas a estas excitações, é proposto um código numérico para a realização deste tipo de análise. Neste código, o processo de integração numérica é executado tanto pelo método de Newmark, como por Diferenças Finitas. Pode ser considerada não-linearidade geométrica pelo efeito do esforço axial e da variação das coordenadas nodais sobre a matriz de rigidez. São ainda avaliados por este algoritmo incertezas de modelo inseridas pela forma de determinação do vento turbulento e pela consideração da flexibilidade das fundações. A inclusão de amortecedores de atrito à estrutura é, da mesma forma, analisada. / During the implantation of cellular telephony in Brazil, thousands of towers were designed by professionals who used models unsuitable for the consideration of wind dynamic effects. Because of this, structural problems have been frequent. This work is motivated by data lack in literature to help the designer to specify geometric and mechanical characteristics of this structure category. It is discussed every aspect involved in telecommunications tower design: standards, characteristics, materials and a search in the manufacturers to obtain data about weight of the different types of towers. These informations are important to evaluate the project feasibility or to develop new models of structures. Front advantages and disadvantages of existing solutions, this work presents a tower project that adjoins the ratio moment of inertia - cross section area from truss towers and the low wind loading from the poles, to 40 and 70 m towers height . The viability of these projects is estimated by comparing its weight with data searched. After describing nature of the wind and how to obtain and apply the dynamic forces involved, how to obtaining response of structures to these excitation, it is proposed a numerical code to carrying out this analysis. In this code, the integration process is performed by the Newmark and finite differences numerical methods. It can be considered the geometrical non-linearity considering on the stiffness matrix the axial stress effect and nodal coordinates variation. Uncertainties inserted by turbulent wind determining and the foundations flexibility consideration are also evaluated by this algorithm. Friction dampers inclusion is, similarly, examined.

Durante a implantação do sistema de telefonia celular no Brasil, milhares de torres foram projetadas por profissionais que utilizaram modelos inadequados para a consideração dos efeitos dinâmicos do vento. Devido a este fato, problemas estruturais têm sido freqüentes. Este trabalho é motivado pela falta de material na literatura para auxiliar o projetista a especificar as características geométricas e mecânicas deste tipo de estrutura. São abordados todos os aspectos envolvidos no projeto de uma torre de telecomunicações: normas, características de cada tipo de torre, de aço ou de concreto, além de uma pesquisa junto a empresas fabricantes com o objetivo de levantar dados sobre o peso dos diferentes tipos de torre. Este tipo de informação é de grande valia para a avaliação da viabilidade de projetos ou para o desenvolvimento de novos tipos de estruturas. Diante das vantagens e desvantagens das soluções existentes, este trabalho apresenta um modelo de torre que une a alta relação momento de inércia - área de seção transversal das torres em treliças ao baixo carregamento devido ao vento dos postes, para alturas de 40 m e 70 m. A viabilidade destes projetos é indicada pela comparação de seu peso com o de estruturas pesquisadas. Após descrever natureza do vento e as formas de obter e aplicar as forças dinâmicas associadas, além da obtenção de resposta de estruturas a estas excitações, é proposto um código numérico para a realização deste tipo de análise. Neste código, o processo de integração numérica é executado tanto pelo método de Newmark, como por Diferenças Finitas. Pode ser considerada não-linearidade geométrica pelo efeito do esforço axial e da variação das coordenadas nodais sobre a matriz de rigidez. São ainda avaliados por este algoritmo incertezas de modelo inseridas pela forma de determinação do vento turbulento e pela consideração da flexibilidade das fundações. A inclusão de amortecedores de atrito à estrutura é, da mesma forma, analisada. / During the implantation of cellular telephony in Brazil, thousands of towers were designed by professionals who used models unsuitable for the consideration of wind dynamic effects. Because of this, structural problems have been frequent. This work is motivated by data lack in literature to help the designer to specify geometric and mechanical characteristics of this structure category. It is discussed every aspect involved in telecommunications tower design: standards, characteristics, materials and a search in the manufacturers to obtain data about weight of the different types of towers. These informations are important to evaluate the project feasibility or to develop new models of structures. Front advantages and disadvantages of existing solutions, this work presents a tower project that adjoins the ratio moment of inertia - cross section area from truss towers and the low wind loading from the poles, to 40 and 70 m towers height . The viability of these projects is estimated by comparing its weight with data searched. After describing nature of the wind and how to obtain and apply the dynamic forces involved, how to obtaining response of structures to these excitation, it is proposed a numerical code to carrying out this analysis. In this code, the integration process is performed by the Newmark and finite differences numerical methods. It can be considered the geometrical non-linearity considering on the stiffness matrix the axial stress effect and nodal coordinates variation. Uncertainties inserted by turbulent wind determining and the foundations flexibility consideration are also evaluated by this algorithm. Friction dampers inclusion is, similarly, examined.

M.Ing. / Water gives life. It waters the fields of farmers; it nurtures the crops and stock of rural communities; it provides recreation for our children, our friends, our families; it supports our power generation, our mines, our industry, and the plants and animals that make up ecosystems. Water is the key to development and a good quality of life in South Africa. South Africa's water belongs to its people. It is the task of the South African Government to care for this water, to seek its fair distribution, and to facilitate its wise use for, amongst other things, social and economical development. Issues such as water resource management, use, protection, water services, etc., are presently governed by a number of policies, acts and regulations. All South Africans has a responsibility regarding the management of the country's resources. The supply of water to its entire people makes it extremely important to optimise the use of this scarce source. Access to water and water availability remains a key factor in ensuring the sustainability of development in Southern Africa. The coal fired power industry is a major user of natural resources; coal for fuel and water for steam generation as well as the cooling systems. It is estimated that 1.5% of the water abstracted in South Africa is used for power generation. The power industry receives its water mainly as abstraction from surface impoundments in the form of rivers and dams. Eskom, as a strategic user of water, is mindful of the importance of water to its business, as well as the development of the country. In addition to the interests of the government as the shareholder, Eskom recognises the legitimate interests, as stakeholders, of specific government departments, employees, consumers, suppliers, investors and lenders of capital, rating agencies, the media, policy and regulatory bodies, trade unions, non-governmental groups and local communities in its affairs. Eskom needs to ensure, through an effective water management strategy, that water is used wisely and effectively and that Eskom's impact on local water resources (surface and underground) is minimised. Eskom therefore has to manage water resources in a manner that will sustain the ecological integrity, support social development and ensure economic growth. Eskom has undertaken to benchmark the power generation industry, in co-operation with the DW AF, in a project aimed at developing the principles of water conservation and water demand management. In order to effectively manage water quality and quantity at Eskom's power stations, and to show Eskom's commitment with regard to water conservation and use, Eskom has compiled its own water and environmental policies.

Structural topology optimization is a mathematical approach developed to perform design optimization with the purpose of reducing the material usage, while maximizing structural performance, in accordance to specific design constraints. The principles behind this technique have been around for many decades, but recent advancements in the processing power of computers have allowed for the solving of complex problems, such as the optimization of tall wind turbine towers, bridges, and the bracing systems in skyscrapers. There are two approaches commonly used in structural topology optimization: discrete and continuum. This thesis uses continuum topology optimization, which involves adjusting the distribution of a porous elastic solid material to extremize the design objective(s) and to satisfy constraints. The material porosity is the design variable that is adjusted during the optimization process. The design domain is broken down into a system of continuum degenerated finite elements, which are used for both structural analysis and to create a mesh representation of the structural system, just as pixels make up a picture. Solid elements are modeled as having no porosity, while void spaces have total porosity. As the optimization process occurs, the shape of the boundaries, and the number and size of internal holes are altered in order to best meet the design objective(s) and constraint(s). The purpose of performing continuum structural topology optimization of structural elements is to obtain promising concepts which provide a basis upon which to begin the design process. The steps taken in this thesis to optimize the wind turbine tower are: 1. Create a solid model of the tower domain 2. Define the material properties 3. Determine the equivalent static design wind forces using the extreme loading conditions outlined in IEC 61400 4. Formulate the optimization problem by specifying the objective and constraint functions. 5. Solve the optimization problem and interpret the results. This study on continuum topology optimization on the tower shell, indicates even with a significant reduction in material from the original design space, the structure is capable of meeting the design criteria. The results indicate that opening void spaces in the shell of the tower and creating an open lattice shape may be an effective method to reduce the volume of wind turbine towers, as it has in other applications. This concurs with the stated goal of my research, which is to show that topology optimization has the potential to be used in a multitude of practical applications in order to increase efficiency, and reduce cost of the production of wind power.

With the attempt to achieve the optimum in analysis and design, the technological global knowledge base grows more and more. Engineers all over the world continuously modify and innovate existing analysis methods and design procedures to perform the same task more efficiently and with better results. In the field of complex structural analysis many researchers pursue this challenging task. The complexity of a lattice type structure is caused by numerous parameters: the nonlinear member performance of the material, the statistical variation of member load capacities, the highly indeterminate structural composition, etc. In order to achieve a simulation approach which represents the real world problem more accurately, it is necessary to develop technologies which include these parameters in the analysis. One of the new technologies is the first order nonlinear analysis of lattice type structures including the after failure response of individual members. Such an analysis is able to predict the failure behavior of a structural system under ultimate loads more accurately than the traditionally used linear elastic analysis or a classical first order nonlinear analysis. It is an analysis procedure which can more accurately evaluate the limit-state of a structural system. The Probability Based Analysis (PBA) is a new technology. It provides the user with a tool to analyze structural systems based on statistical variations in member capacities. Current analysis techniques have shown that structural failure is sensitive to member capacity. The combination of probability based analysis and the limit-state analysis will give the engineer the capability to establish a failure load distribution based on the limit-state capacity of the structure. This failure load distribution which gives statistical properties such as mean and variance improves the engineering judgment. The mean shows the expected value or the mathematical expectation of the failure load. The variance is a tool to measure the variability of the failure load distribution. Based on a certain load case, a small variance will indicate that a few members cause the tower failure over and over again; the design is unbalanced. A large variance will indicate that many different members caused the tower failure. The failure load distribution helps in comparing and evaluating actual test results versus analytical results by locating an actual test among the possible failure loads of a tower series. Additionally, the failure load distribution allows the engineer to calculate exclusion limits which are a measure of the probability of success, or conversely the probability of failure for a given load condition. The exclusion limit allows engineers to redefine their judgement on safety and usability of transmission towers. Existing transmission towers can be reanalyzed using this PBA and upgraded based on a given exclusion limit for a chosen tower capacity increase according to the elastic analysis from which the tower was designed. New transmission towers can be analyzed based on the actual yield strength data and their nonlinear member performances. Based on this innovative analysis the engineer is able to improve tower design by using a tool which represents the real world behavior of steel transmission towers more accurately. Consequently it will improve structural safety and reduce cost.