Thesis (MScEng (Electrical and Electronic Engineering))--University of Stellenbosch, 2007. / The work presented in this thesis forms part of the participation of the University of Stellenbosch in an electric vehicle project. The thesis deals with three aspects of the dynamics and energy management of the electric vehicle. The three aspects that are dealt with are the suspension system of an electric vehicle with in-wheel propulsion, the traction control of an electric vehicle and the energy system of such a vehicle. An investigation is presented in the thesis on the effect the mass of the hub motors has on the safety, stability and comfort of the electric vehicle. The investigation is done through a system frequency analysis and a comparative simulation. A comparison is made between a standard vehicle and a vehicle with in-wheel propulsion. A vehicle model is derived for the simulation of the vehicle. Finally, a few of the results of physical measurements performed are also presented. The traction control requirements of an EV are investigated. A discussion is given on the parts that make up an EV’s traction control system. A few examples of possible traction control systems are given through a step by step evolution of a traction control system. A vehicle model is derived for both static and kinetic friction conditions. The model is used in simulations to illustrate the need for traction control in EV’s. The thesis presents two methods for choosing a battery pack size, in terms of energy capacity etc. The difficulties associated with choosing a battery pack, using each of these methods are given. A battery pack choice for the specific electric vehicle, is presented. The measurements of one of the required charge-discharge cycles are presented to illustrate the charge and discharge curves of the battery cells used. The management of energy flow within the energy system of the EV is crucial, especially if regenerative braking is utilized. This is to protect the battery cells as well as to extend the range of the vehicle. The thesis presents the evaluation of an energy management system (EMS) using ultra capacitors as auxiliary storage device. An electronic load system is designed to simulate the operation of the vehicle motors. The transfer functions for the EMS and load system are derived and used to design the respective control algorithms. The control algorithms were implemented in both simulation as well as a laboratory setup to show the operation of the EMS. A new energy system configuration is presented. The aim of the new configuration is to solve certain problems encountered when implementing a conventional EMS. The operation of the new configuration is discussed. A comparative study is made between the conventional and the new configurations.

The work presented in this thesis is dedicated to the study of transient tyre dynamics and how these influence the dynamic behaviour of the vehicle and its driveline, with the main focus being on low-to-zero speed manoeuvres such as pull-away events. The bulk of the work focuses on the amalgamation of the hitherto disparate fields of driveline modelling and detailed tyre modelling. Several tyre models are employed and their relative advantages and disadvantages analysed. The observed dynamic behaviour is correlated to the inherent structure of each tyre model in order for the most appropriate for driveline studies to be identified. The main simulation studies are split into two parts: the first comprises a study into isolated driveline dynamics; where the yaw, pitch and roll behaviours of the vehicle body are neglected. A relatively detailed driveline model with an open differential is used with tyre models of increasing complexity with the aim of determining when increased model detail fails to increase the accuracy of the results. The second part is concerned with the study of how the dynamics of the vehicle body and suspension affect tyre model performance and associated effects on the driveline behaviour. For this, the driveline and tyre models are incorporated into a full six degree-of-freedom vehicle model with full suspension effects. Frequency migration on low-μ surfaces is successfully explained via the decoupling of the vehicle and driveline inertias. Frequencies observed in FFT analyses of the simulation results correspond to those obtained through eigen-analysis of appropriately modified state-space models with varying degrees of coupling that reflect the vehicle travelling on uniform low- or split-μ surfaces. The main finding of the thesis is that this decoupling theory can also be applied to high-speed take-off manoeuvres, as it is the position along the tyre slip-force curve that dictates decoupling; i.e. if the curve has saturated. This leads to the effective traction stiffness being zero, which modifies the equations of motion and subsequently the system eigenvalues. A series of measurements are taken in order to verify the findings from the simulation work. Manoeuvres analogous to those simulated are carried out. It is found that only the simulation of split-μ conditions is necessary, as the results from the low-μ test show a similar pattern to those seen on the split-μ surface.

Dans un premier volet, une approche expérimentale basée sur des essais macroscopiques et des observations microscopiques (MEB et MO) ont permis de préciser la cause de l’endommagement du polyéthylène haute densité (PEHD) et sa sensibilité à la triaxialité des contraintes. Dans un deuxième volet, afin d’explorer des gammes de triaxialités de contraintesplus importantes, des éprouvettes fissurées ont été étudiées expérimentalement et ont permis de discuter de la pertinence des critères impliquant les concepts de la mécanique de la rupture ductile pour l’étude du PEHD. Pour étayer la discussion, deux approches énergétiques (intégrale J et EWF) de la mécanique de la rupture couplées à la technique de corrélation d’images digitales ont été examinées sur trois types d’éprouvettes (SENB, CT et DENT). Enfin, un troisième volet avait pour objet d’examiner la pertinence de modèles issus de la mécanique de l’endommagement ductile par croissance de vides pour prédire le comportement mécanique et l’endommagement du PEHD et ce, jusqu’à rupture. Une attention particulière a été portée aux effets de triaxialité des contraintes. Deux critères de coalescences ont été examinés selon deux approches complémentaires. Ces approches se sont avérées pertinentes dans le cas du PEHD. En effet, la confrontation des résultats numériques avec les résultats expérimentaux a montrée une bonne corrélation tant sur la réponse globale des éprouvettes axisymétriques entaillées (courbes contrainte vraie - variation de volume plastique - déformation vraie) et des éprouvettes de rupture (charge - déplacement) que sur la réponse locale des éprouvettes de rupture en terme de champs cinématiques. / In a first part of this thesis, an experimental approach based on macroscopic measurements and microscopic observations (SEM and OM) led to a better understanding of damage mechanisms in high density polyethylene (HDPE) and its stress triaxiality sensitivity. In order to examine higher stress triaxiality values, cracked samples were experimentally examined in a second part. Based on the obtained results, the relevance of the fracture mechanics concepts to characterize the fracture toughness of HDPE was critically discussed. The investigation was performed using two well-known approaches of the fracture mechanics – J-integral and EWF – using different specimen configurations (SENB, CT and DENT). To gain insight into the strain field around the crack tip, digital image correlation method was used. The third part was focused on the demonstration of the relevance of ductile damage models (based on the void volume evolution as indicator of damage) to predict the mechanical and damage behaviour of HDPE and that, until complete failure. A special attention was paid on the stress triaxiality effects. Two failure criteria using complementary approaches were examined. These approaches were found relevant in the case of HDPE. Indeed, a good agreement was found between the numerical simulations and the experimental results in terms of overall response of axisymmetric samples (true stress-strain-volumetric response) and of cracked samples (load-displacement response) and in terms of local response corresponding to kinematics fields.

Le Sénégal, pays aride, connait un effet de sécheresse croissant. Le pays est confronté à un problème d’ensablement, de perte de fertilité et de compaction des sols. Des plants d’A. senegal et de P. juliflora en association ou non avec les microorganismes sont étudiés pour savoir en quoi ces espèces peuvent contribuer à la fixation des dunes mouvants et à l’amélioration de la productivité des terres. Des plants inoculés aux champignons mycorhiziens et au Rhizobium sont plantés à Sangalkam, Bandia et Bambey pour être récoltés un an après et analysés. Une autre expérience montée en serre a consisté à faire pousser les mêmes espèces sur le même type de sol à différents niveaux de compaction avec un tiers du lot occupé par les plants inoculés. Les résultats ont montré que le taux de mycorhisation atteint son pic sur sols pauvres en phosphore. L’inoculation a augmenté la production de biomasse tout en réduisant la taille des vaisseaux du bois racinaire. Elle augmente aussi le % de cellulose en fonction du diamètre racinaire et de l’âge. % qui augmente avec la résistance à la traction de la racine, source de meilleur ancrage et de résistance à l’arrachement. Une augmentation du niveau de compaction du sol diminue significativement le taux de mycorhisation et le nombre de nodule des racines. Elle favorise les racines fines au détriment des grosses racines. Ceci affecte positivement l’architecture racinaire au profit d’un meilleur ancrage. Le P. juliflora est mieux pour la lutte contre l’érosion éolienne l’ensablement et la perte de fertilité dans la zone des Niayes. L’A. senegal peut contribuer à l’amélioration de la fertilité tout en adaptant son système racinaire face à la compaction du sol. / An increasing drought effect is known in Senegal, arid country who is confronted to a silting problem, a decline in overall land fertility and soils compaction. Seedling of A. senegal and P. juliflora in association or no with microorganism are studied to know some what these species can contribute to the moving dune fixing and improvement land productivity. Seedling inoculated to mycorrhizas and Rhizobium are planted in Sangalkam, Bandia and Bambey and are harvested one year after for analyzed. Another experience in greenhouse consisted to grow up the same species on the same type of soil with different levels of compaction and a share occupied by inoculated seedlings. Results showed that the rate of mycorhisation reached his peak on soils poor in phosphorus. The inoculation increased the production of biomass while reducing the size of root wood vessels. She also increases it % of cellulose according to root diameter and age. % that increases with the root tensile strength, spring of better anchorage and resistance of extortion. An increase of soil compaction level decreases, meaningfully, the rate of mycorhisation and the number of root nodule. She favored the fine roots to detriment of thick roots. She affects positively root’s morphology in aid of better anchorage. P. juliflora is better for the struggle against the wind erosion the silting and loss of fertility in the Niayes area. A. senegal can contribute to the improvement of fertility while adapting its root system facing soil compaction.

In this thesis, a new traction stress based method for characterizing shear strength is investigated by carrying out a series of shear strength tests. The AWS method for the calculation of shear strength shows significant discrepancies between longitudinal and transverse specimens. The main purpose of this new traction based definition for shear strength is to demonstrate that there exists a single shear strength value regardless of specimen geometry and loading conditions. With this new approach a better correlation between shear strength values for transverse and longitudinal specimens is achieved. Special issues occur with the multi-pass welds in regards to the failure angle. The AWS equation does not account to different failure angles of the specimens, it only assumes 45o failure angle in all the cases, but the new approach takes into account the different failure angles. Finally with this method a quantitative weld sizing can be achieved for fillet welds.

[pt] Em terrenos acidentados é crítico para robôs móveis manter uma adequada tração nas rodas, pois um excessivo deslizamento das mesmas pode fazer o robô capotar ou desviar da rota desejada. Também, se uma força excessiva é aplicada sobre uma região do terreno, pode levar o mesmo a ceder deixando as rodas presas. Para se evitar os problemas acima citados e ainda otimizar o consumo de energia em terrenos planos, a presente dissertação desenvolveu um controle de tração para terrenos acidentados com o intuito de aplicá- lo ao Robô Ambiental Híbrido (RAH) da Petrobrás. O RAH é um robô móvel anfíbio que está em fase de desenvolvimento no Laboratório de Robótica do CENPES (Petrobras), que poderá ser comandado por um operador ou se deslocar autonomamente. Esse robô faz parte do projeto Cognitus, braço tecnológico do projeto Piatam (Potenciais Impactos e Riscos Ambientais da Indústria de Óleo e Gás na Amazônia), e será aplicado na monitoração e coleta de dados do meio ambiente de dois gasodutos da Petrobrás na região Amazônica, o gasoduto Urucu (AM)- Porto Velho (RO) e o gasoduto Coari (AM) - Manaus (AM). A técnica de controle de tração de veículos robóticos em terrenos acidentados desenvolvida visa controlar a velocidade ao mesmo tempo em que garante a estabilidade dinâmica, não deslizamento das rodas, evita a saturação dos motores, e em certas condições ainda permite minimizar a potência requerida através do conhecimento dos ângulos de contato entre as rodas e o terreno. Foram feitas duas modelagens independentes, uma considerando a suspensão do robô flexível e a outra considerando o veículo robótico como um corpo rígido, sendo ambas para o caso plano (2D).Foram realizadas simulações em terrenos suaves e acidentados, as quais comprovaram a eficácia das técnicas de controle propostas. / [en] Abstract Silva, Alexandre F. Barral Silva; Meggiolaro, Marco Antonio. Traction Control to Mobile Robotic Systems in Rough Terrain. Rio de Janeiro, 2004. 194 p. MSc. Thesis - Departamento de Engenharia Mecânica, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio de Janeiro. In rough terrain it is critical for mobile robots to maintain adequate wheel traction, because excessive sliding could cause the robot to roll over or deviate from its intended path. Also, if an excessive force is applied onto the terrain, the soil may fail and trap the robot wheels. To avoid these problems, and also minimize the power consumption on even terrain, the present work develops a rough terrain traction control to be applied to the Hybrid Environmental Robot (HER) from Petrobras. The HER is an amphibious mobile robot developed by the Robotics Laboratory from CENPES (Petrobras). It can be commanded by an operator or autonomously. This robot is part of the Cognitus Project, technological branch of the Piatam project (Potential Impacts and Environmental Risks of the Oil and Gas Industry in the Amazon). It will be used for monitoring and environmental data collecting along two gas pipelines in the Amazon region, the Urucu (AM) - Porto Velho (RO) and the Coari (AM) - Manaus (AM). The developed traction control of robotic vehicles in rough terrain aims to control the speed at the same time that it guarantees dynamic stability, no slip of the wheels, prevents motor saturation, and under certain conditions it may also allow for the minimization of the required power. This control needs the knowledge of the current state of the robot, including the contact angles between its wheels and the terrain. Two independent 2D models have been proposed, one including the suspension compliance and one considering the robotic vehicle as a rigid body. Simulations have been performed in even and rough terrains, proving the effectiveness of the proposed control techniques.

Nas últimas décadas, os avanços na agricultura se destacam principalmente por meio da mecanização e pela eletrônica embarcada, a qual otimizou os processos e viabilizou redução de custos. No entanto, a massa cada vez mais crescente e o intenso tráfego desses equipamentos promovem a compactação do solo, resultando em prejuízos ao setor agrícola. Neste sentido, os objetivos deste de trabalho foi desenvolver sensores que permitam avaliar, as pressões exercidas ao solo decorrentes do tráfego de máquinas e implementos agrícolas e empregá-lo em um estudo para verificar os efeitos da esteira metálica instalada sobre pneus de alta flutuação em ambiente agrícola, bem como a variação na força de tração de acordo com o rodado utilizado. Sendo a hipótese 1 do trabalho, de que esteiras conferem menor pressão sobre solo devido à maior área de contato, resultando em menor compactação e a hipótese 2 de que a utilização das esteiras leva a maior exigência tratória. O desenvolvimento dos sensores e a condução do ensaio foram realizados no campus da ESALQ/USP, as esteiras metálicas foram instaladas sobre os pneus de BPAF de um transbordo de cana-de-açúcar preenchido com solo, para simular uma carga 7500 kg. O ensaio foi dividido em 02 tratamentos (Pneu BPAF e Esteira Metálica), com 04 passadas sucessivas do transbordo carregado sobre os sensores dispostos no solo, na horizontal, vertical e diagonal. Foram determinadas as áreas de contato dos dois tipos de rodado, por meio de imagem digital e mensurada a força de tração exercida pelo transbordo carregado e vazio. Com base nos resultados de pressão exercida ao solo, observou-se uma diminuição de 50% da pressão superficial utilizando esteiras metálicas comparada com os pneus BPAF, em contrapartida a força de tração do transbordo utilizando esteira metálica foi 137% maior. Portando conclui-se que o sensor desenvolvido foi capaz de estimar os picos e as pressões residuais exercidas ao solo em diferentes profundidades e ficaram comprovadas as hipóteses do trabalho. / In recent decades, advances in agriculture are distinguished mainly by mechanization and onboard electronics, which enabled streamlined processes and reduced costs. However, the increasing mass and heavy traffic of these equipments promote soil compaction, resulting significant agricultural losses. This work aimed to develop sensors to assess the stress on soil, resulting from traffic and agricultural machinery and, use them in a study to verify the metal tracks effects installed on high flotation tires on agricultural environment, as well as the variation in traction force according to the used tires. This study considered the following hypothesis: 1. metal tracks give less stress on soil due to greater contact area, resulting in less compaction; 2. the use of metal tracks leads to a greater demand of tractors. The development of sensors and trial conduction were held on ESALQ / USP campus. The metal tracks were installed on the tires of the sugarcane transshipment filled with soil to simulate a load of 7500 kg. The test was divided into 02 treatments (High Floatation Tire and Metal Tracks), with 04 transshipment successive passes loaded on the sensors horizontally, vertically and diagonally placed on soil. The contact areas of the two types of tires were determined through digital imaging and the traction force exerted by loaded and empty transshipment. Considering the stress results on soil, there was a decrease of 50% of the surface stress using metal tracks compared to the tires. However the transshipment traction force using a metal tracks was 137% higher. Therefore, the developed sensor was able to estimate the peaks and the residual stress exerted on soil at different depths and the hypothesis were confirmed.

O objetivo deste trabalho é realizar medições de distorção de tensão e corrente na entrada de subestações que alimentam sistemas ferroviários e verificar se estas atendem às normas IEEE - 519:1992 e IEC 61000-3-6:2008. Foram realizadas medições durante uma semana nas subestações retificadoras Tietê e Jaraguá, ambas da CPTM. Os resultados das medições foram comparados com simulações computacionais baseadas em um modelo simplificado do sistema de alimentação. / This study reports an experimental assessment of current and voltage distortion at the ac side of railway power supply installations and their compliance with the IEEE-519: 1992 and IEC 61000-3-6: 2008 standards. All experimental measurements were conducted using a commercially available power quality analyzer installed during a week at the CPTM rectifier substations of Tietê and Jaraguá. A simplified model was applied to computer simulations in order to calibrate the model through the comparison with experimental results.

O presente trabalho traz o estudo da simulação do desempenho (simulação de marcha) de uma composição ferroviária acionada através de inversores de tensão e motores de indução e alimentada em corrente contínua, um tipo de material rodante recentemente introduzido no Brasil. Tal fato faz com que seja necessário o desenvolvimento de métodos de análise das características deste tipo de material, objetivo maior deste trabalho. A metodologia de análise aqui desenvolvida tem como base a teoria da tração elétrica para o equacionamento da dinâmica do movimento, a teoria do controle do motor de indução e a teoria do funcionamento do próprio motor de indução para a obtenção da corrente captada por esta composição - um dos principais resultados obtidos. A aplicação desta metodologia é dada através da simulação de uma composição em três tipos de vias diferentes. Uma análise posterior dos resultados traz a possibilidade de uma simplificação do método de obtenção da corrente captada. Tal possibilidade é apresentada e comparada com os dados anteriormente obtidos validando-a. / This dissertation is a study of the duty cycle simulation of inverter-fed induction traction drives for DC-supplied railway system. This type of equipment is new in Brazilian railway and subway systems and the need to model and to simulate became an important issue and the aim of this dissertation. The development of the model is based on electric railway traction theory for train dynamics, on inverter-fed induction machine control and induction machine theory to calculate the input line current from power supply - one of the most important results. As an example, a modeling and simulation of one train running in three different lines is shown. The analysis of the results shows that the input line current from power supply may be obtained by a simplified model. This hypothesis is studied, the results are compared and the simplified model is then validated.

Resumo: Esse trabalho foi realizado com o objetivo de comparar o desempenho de um trator equipado com pneus diagonais novos e pneus diagonais desgastados, em três condições de superfície: pista com solo mobilizado, pista com cobertura vegetal e pista com solo firme. Foi utilizado o delineamento experimental em faixas, sendo que em cada faixa (pista) foram dispostos os tratamentos em blocos ao acaso, com um arranjo fatorial de 2x4, definidos pelos dois conjuntos de pneus diagonais (novos e desgastados) e quatro condições de deslocamento, distinguidas pela mudança de marcha do trator, totalizando oito tratamentos, com três repetições cada, perfazendo 72 unidades experimentais. Foram coletados os dados para o cálculo da velocidade de deslocamento, patinagem das rodas traseiras e dianteiras do trator e consumo horário de combustível. Também foram coletados os dados de força de tração, sendo calculada a potência disponível na barra de tração em função da velocidade de deslocamento. Foi utilizado como carro dinamométrico a Unidade Móvel de Ensaio na Barra de Tração - UMEB, pertencente ao Núcleo de Ensaios de Máquinas e Pneus Agroflorestais - NEMPA, do Departamento de Engenharia Rural da Faculdade de Ciências Agronômicas - FCA da UNESP, Campus de Botucatu - SP. Os resultados mostraram que tanto as condições dos pneus quanto as condições do solo interferiram na capacidade do trator em desenvolver força de tração, sendo o 2 pior desempenho obtido na pista com solo mobilizado. O melhor desempenho do trator foi na pista com solo firme; porém, na pista com cobertura vegetal ocorreram as melhores condições de força de tração do trator em relação ao solo mobilizado, mostrando que a presença da cobertura vegetal entre o rodado e o solo interferiu diretamente na relação rodado/solo. Na pista com solo mobilizado os resultados mostraram que a velocidade foi a menor... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrôncio abaixo) / Abstract: The objective of this work was to compare the performance of a tractor equipped with used and new bias-ply tires, operating in three surface conditions: tillage soil, vegetal covered soil and firm soil. The experimental design were tracks and, in each track, treatments were disposed in blocks to the chance in a 2x4 factorial arrangement, defined by the two groups of tires (used and new bias-ply) and four speed conditions, distinguished by tractor’s gear change, totaling eight treatments, with three repetitions each, completing 72 experimental units. There were collected data to calculate: speed, front and rear tires slippage and fuel consumption. There were also collected data of traction strength to calculate available power at traction bar versus speed. The dynamometric car used was the Mobile Drawbar Test Unit - UMEB, owned by the Facility of Agricultural and Forestry Tires and Machines Assays (NEMPA) of Rural Engineering Department in the Agronomics Science College - FCA, UNESP, Botucatu campus. Results showed that both, tires and soil conditions, changed tractor capacity on developing traction strength. The worst performance was observed on the tillage soil. On the track with soil covered with vegetal residues, occurred better tractor traction strength conditions than on track with tillage soil, showing the presence of vegetal cover between tire and soil interfered directly on the tires/soil relation ship. 4 On the track with tillage soil, results showed that the forward speed was the lowest among the three soil conditions due to the front and rear tires slippage which is higher than vegetal covered and firm soil tracks. Fuel consumption results showed higher values on tilled tracks when comparing with firm and vegetal covered tracks. Data of available power at the drawbar were statistically equal on tilled and vegetal-covered soil tracks... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Orientador: Kléber Pereira Lanças / Coorientador: Antonio Gabriel Filho / Banca: Ulisses Rocha Antuniassi / Banca: Alberto Kazushi Nagaoka / Mestre