Este trabalho avalia os efeitos dos incentivos fiscais concedidos às indústrias instaladas na Zona Franca de Manaus na criação e distribuição de riqueza. A plataforma teórica tem como pilares as teorias sobre comércio exterior e a dos stakeholders, aliadas aos conceitos relativos às políticas de desenvolvimento econômico, às políticas de desenvolvimento industrial e aos incentivos fiscais. O modelo industrial Zona Franca de Manaus é caracterizado como Zona de Livre Comércio. Discute-se os conceitos, vantagens, desvantagens da Demonstração de Valor Adicionado (DVA) como instrumento contábil para medir a criação e distribuição de riqueza. A amostra deste estudo foi selecionada entre as indústrias instaladas na ZFM que publicam as demonstrações financeiras do banco de dados mantidos pela FIPECAFI, base para a edição Melhores e Maiores, da Revista Exame. Dentre essas empresas foram selecionadas 30 (trinta) para análise quanto à forma de contabilização dos incentivos fiscais, totalizando 150 (cento e cinquenta) demonstrações contábeis no período de 2003 a 2007. Para a análise de criação e distribuição de riqueza foram selecionadas todas as indústrias que elaboram e/ou divulgam a Demonstração de Valor Adicionado (DVA). Foram analisadas ao total 73 Demonstrações de Valor Adicionado para o período de 2003 a 2007 e comparadas a criação e a distribuição de riqueza com outros grupos de indústrias, localizados fora da Zona Franca de Manaus. Foram analisados os setores de autoindústria, bens de consumo e indústrias digital e de eletroeletrônicos e um grupo de controle de empresas pares, escolhidas em função da similaridade do setor de atuação e faturamentos. Para a comparação da forma de contabilização dos incentivos fiscais, especificamente o ICMS, foi utilizada a técnica de análise de conteúdo e estatística descritiva entre os grupos que contabilizam de forma correta e os que contabilizam de forma errada. Foram encontradas quatro formas de contabilização, nas quais se destacam 66,7% que contabilizam de forma errada e 20% de forma correta. Para a análise da criação de riqueza pelas empresas foram utilizadas as técnicas estatística análise de regressão e teste de média. Pela técnica de regressão linear as empresas industriais instaladas na Zona Franca de Manaus criam, em média, 30,96% de riqueza em função do faturamento, enquanto as empresas pares situadas fora dessa região criam, em média, 45,08%. Ao aplicar o teste de média, as empresas situadas na Zona Franca de Manaus, criam, em média 31,07% ao passo que as empresas pares situadas fora criam, em média, 54,36%. Destaque-se o fato de que as empresas industriais instaladas na Zona Franca de Manaus que contabilizam os incentivos fiscais, de maneira errada, especificamente o ICMS, evidenciam e publicam, de maneira equivocada, a criação de riqueza, em média, de 42,85% pela regressão linear e 32,41% pela média. Para a distribuição de riqueza foi pesquisada a distribuição para três grupos: pessoal, governos e proprietários. Foi utilizado o teste de média e os achados mostram que enquanto as empresas industriais instaladas na ZFM distribuem 27,28%, 54,42% e 1,82% aos empregados, governos e proprietários, respectivamente, as empresas pares situadas fora distribuem 36,31%, 41,54% e 6,44%, respectivamente. Os resultados finais da pesquisa chegam à conclusão que os incentivos fiscais concedidos pelo modelo industrial Zona Franca de Manaus às indústrias instaladas naquela região criam menos riqueza do que os mesmos setores ou similares instalados fora e sem os incentivos fiscais e distribuem menos riqueza aos empregados e aos proprietários, mas possuem efeitos positivos na parcela de riqueza distribuída aos governos, em função da riqueza criada. / This thesis assesses the effects of tax incentives granted to industrial enterprises located at the Manaus Free Trade Zone as far as generation and distribution of wealth goes. The theories of foreign trade and of stakeholders are the foundation, alongside concepts concerning policies of industrial development and tax incentives. The Free Trade Zone industrial model is characterized as a zone of free trade in its own right. Topics of discussion include the concepts, advantages, and disadvantages of Value Added Statements (VAS) as an accounting tool to measure the creation and distribution of wealth. The research sample was selected among the enterprises operating within MFTZ that disclose financial statements at the database kept by Fipecafi, which in turn feeds the issues of Maiores e Melhores, published by Exame Magazine. Thirty enterprises were then selected for analysis as to the way of accounting tax incentives, totaling 150 (a hundred and fifty) accounting statements in the period comprised between 2003 and 2007. All the industrial enterprises which produce and/or publish Value Added Statements were used in the part dedicated to the analysis of creation and distribution of wealth. On the whole, seventy three Value Added Statements were studied for the 2003-2007 period, and these were compared with the creation and distribution of wealth by other enterprises selected and set up outside Manaus Free Trade Zone. The sectors selected were automobile, consumer goods, digital products, and electric-electronic goods, together with a counterpart control group, chosen due to similarities in type of product and income. In order to compare the way tax incentives, in special ICMS (Value Added Tax on Sale and Services) are accounted, the content technique and the descriptive analysis were used with both, the groups that account these incentives correctly and the ones that do so incorrectly. Four accounting possibilities were found, and among them the emphasis lies on a 66.7% of wrong accounting manner, and a 20% of correct accounting manner. In order to perform the analysis of wealth creation by enterprises, the study resorted to regression analysis and mean test. The linear regression technique showed that industrial enterprises within MFTZ generate around 30.96% of wealth due to income, while counterpart enterprises located elsewhere generate an average 45.08%. The mean test demonstrates that enterprises located within the MFTZ create an average 31.07%, whereas the control group generates an average 54.39% wealth. It must be emphasized that enterprises that are placed within MFTZ, account tax incentives, especially ICMS incorrectly, disclose and publish wealth creation in the wrong way are an average 42.85% by linear regression and an average 32.41% by mean test. As to wealth distribution, three groups of recipients of wealth produced were analyzed: employees, governments, and shareholders. The mean test was used and the findings show that whereas enterprises in MFTZ dispense 27.85, 54.42%, and 1.82% respectively to employees, governments and shareholders, the control group distributes 36.31%, 41.54%, and 6,44% respectively. The final results of the research point to the conclusion that tax incentives granted by the industrial model of Manaus Free Trade Zone to enterprises located in that region generate less wealth than counterpart enterprises located outside the zone and which do not benefit from those incentives; besides, they distribute less wealth to employees and shareholders, but perform positively as to share of wealth granted to governments due to the wealth created.

This paper estimates rates of return across the gross wealth distribution in eight European countries. Like differential saving rates, differential rates of return matter for Post Keynesian theory, because they impact the income and wealth distribution and add an explosive element to growth models. We show that differential rates of return matter empirically by merging data on household balance sheets with long-run returns for individual asset categories. We find that (1) the composition of wealth differentiates between three socioeconomic groups: 30% are asset-poor, 65% are middle-class home owners, and the top 5% are business-owning capitalists; (2) rates of return rise across all groups; and (3) rates of return broadly follow a log-shaped function across the distribution, where inequality in the lower half of the distribution is higher than in the upper half. If socioeconomic groups are collapsed into the bottom 95% workers and top 5% capitalists, then rates of return are 5.6% for the former and 7.2% for the latter. / Series: Ecological Economic Papers

This paper estimates rates of return across the gross wealth distribution in eight European countries. Like differential saving rates, differential rates of return matter for Post Keynesian theory, because they impact the income and wealth distribution and add an explosive element to growth models. We show that differential rates of return matter empirically by merging data on household balance sheets with long-run returns for individual asset categories. We find that (1) the composition of wealth differentiates between three socioeconomic groups: 30% are asset-poor, 65% are middle-class home owners, and the top 5% are business-owning capitalists; (2) rates of return rise across all groups; and (3) rates of return broadly follow a log-shaped function across the distribution, where inequality in the lower half of the distribution is higher than in the upper half. If socioeconomic groups are collapsed into the bottom 95% workers and top 5% capitalists, then rates of return are 5.6% for the former and 7.2% for the latter. / Series: Ecological Economic Papers

Este trabalho avalia os efeitos dos incentivos fiscais concedidos às indústrias instaladas na Zona Franca de Manaus na criação e distribuição de riqueza. A plataforma teórica tem como pilares as teorias sobre comércio exterior e a dos stakeholders, aliadas aos conceitos relativos às políticas de desenvolvimento econômico, às políticas de desenvolvimento industrial e aos incentivos fiscais. O modelo industrial Zona Franca de Manaus é caracterizado como Zona de Livre Comércio. Discute-se os conceitos, vantagens, desvantagens da Demonstração de Valor Adicionado (DVA) como instrumento contábil para medir a criação e distribuição de riqueza. A amostra deste estudo foi selecionada entre as indústrias instaladas na ZFM que publicam as demonstrações financeiras do banco de dados mantidos pela FIPECAFI, base para a edição Melhores e Maiores, da Revista Exame. Dentre essas empresas foram selecionadas 30 (trinta) para análise quanto à forma de contabilização dos incentivos fiscais, totalizando 150 (cento e cinquenta) demonstrações contábeis no período de 2003 a 2007. Para a análise de criação e distribuição de riqueza foram selecionadas todas as indústrias que elaboram e/ou divulgam a Demonstração de Valor Adicionado (DVA). Foram analisadas ao total 73 Demonstrações de Valor Adicionado para o período de 2003 a 2007 e comparadas a criação e a distribuição de riqueza com outros grupos de indústrias, localizados fora da Zona Franca de Manaus. Foram analisados os setores de autoindústria, bens de consumo e indústrias digital e de eletroeletrônicos e um grupo de controle de empresas pares, escolhidas em função da similaridade do setor de atuação e faturamentos. Para a comparação da forma de contabilização dos incentivos fiscais, especificamente o ICMS, foi utilizada a técnica de análise de conteúdo e estatística descritiva entre os grupos que contabilizam de forma correta e os que contabilizam de forma errada. Foram encontradas quatro formas de contabilização, nas quais se destacam 66,7% que contabilizam de forma errada e 20% de forma correta. Para a análise da criação de riqueza pelas empresas foram utilizadas as técnicas estatística análise de regressão e teste de média. Pela técnica de regressão linear as empresas industriais instaladas na Zona Franca de Manaus criam, em média, 30,96% de riqueza em função do faturamento, enquanto as empresas pares situadas fora dessa região criam, em média, 45,08%. Ao aplicar o teste de média, as empresas situadas na Zona Franca de Manaus, criam, em média 31,07% ao passo que as empresas pares situadas fora criam, em média, 54,36%. Destaque-se o fato de que as empresas industriais instaladas na Zona Franca de Manaus que contabilizam os incentivos fiscais, de maneira errada, especificamente o ICMS, evidenciam e publicam, de maneira equivocada, a criação de riqueza, em média, de 42,85% pela regressão linear e 32,41% pela média. Para a distribuição de riqueza foi pesquisada a distribuição para três grupos: pessoal, governos e proprietários. Foi utilizado o teste de média e os achados mostram que enquanto as empresas industriais instaladas na ZFM distribuem 27,28%, 54,42% e 1,82% aos empregados, governos e proprietários, respectivamente, as empresas pares situadas fora distribuem 36,31%, 41,54% e 6,44%, respectivamente. Os resultados finais da pesquisa chegam à conclusão que os incentivos fiscais concedidos pelo modelo industrial Zona Franca de Manaus às indústrias instaladas naquela região criam menos riqueza do que os mesmos setores ou similares instalados fora e sem os incentivos fiscais e distribuem menos riqueza aos empregados e aos proprietários, mas possuem efeitos positivos na parcela de riqueza distribuída aos governos, em função da riqueza criada. / This thesis assesses the effects of tax incentives granted to industrial enterprises located at the Manaus Free Trade Zone as far as generation and distribution of wealth goes. The theories of foreign trade and of stakeholders are the foundation, alongside concepts concerning policies of industrial development and tax incentives. The Free Trade Zone industrial model is characterized as a zone of free trade in its own right. Topics of discussion include the concepts, advantages, and disadvantages of Value Added Statements (VAS) as an accounting tool to measure the creation and distribution of wealth. The research sample was selected among the enterprises operating within MFTZ that disclose financial statements at the database kept by Fipecafi, which in turn feeds the issues of Maiores e Melhores, published by Exame Magazine. Thirty enterprises were then selected for analysis as to the way of accounting tax incentives, totaling 150 (a hundred and fifty) accounting statements in the period comprised between 2003 and 2007. All the industrial enterprises which produce and/or publish Value Added Statements were used in the part dedicated to the analysis of creation and distribution of wealth. On the whole, seventy three Value Added Statements were studied for the 2003-2007 period, and these were compared with the creation and distribution of wealth by other enterprises selected and set up outside Manaus Free Trade Zone. The sectors selected were automobile, consumer goods, digital products, and electric-electronic goods, together with a counterpart control group, chosen due to similarities in type of product and income. In order to compare the way tax incentives, in special ICMS (Value Added Tax on Sale and Services) are accounted, the content technique and the descriptive analysis were used with both, the groups that account these incentives correctly and the ones that do so incorrectly. Four accounting possibilities were found, and among them the emphasis lies on a 66.7% of wrong accounting manner, and a 20% of correct accounting manner. In order to perform the analysis of wealth creation by enterprises, the study resorted to regression analysis and mean test. The linear regression technique showed that industrial enterprises within MFTZ generate around 30.96% of wealth due to income, while counterpart enterprises located elsewhere generate an average 45.08%. The mean test demonstrates that enterprises located within the MFTZ create an average 31.07%, whereas the control group generates an average 54.39% wealth. It must be emphasized that enterprises that are placed within MFTZ, account tax incentives, especially ICMS incorrectly, disclose and publish wealth creation in the wrong way are an average 42.85% by linear regression and an average 32.41% by mean test. As to wealth distribution, three groups of recipients of wealth produced were analyzed: employees, governments, and shareholders. The mean test was used and the findings show that whereas enterprises in MFTZ dispense 27.85, 54.42%, and 1.82% respectively to employees, governments and shareholders, the control group distributes 36.31%, 41.54%, and 6,44% respectively. The final results of the research point to the conclusion that tax incentives granted by the industrial model of Manaus Free Trade Zone to enterprises located in that region generate less wealth than counterpart enterprises located outside the zone and which do not benefit from those incentives; besides, they distribute less wealth to employees and shareholders, but perform positively as to share of wealth granted to governments due to the wealth created.

The dissertation consists of four self-contained essays on consumption. Essays 1 and 2 consider different measures of aggregate consumption, and Essays 3 and 4 consider how the distributions of income and wealth affect consumption from a macro and micro perspective, respectively. Essay 1 considers the empirical practice of seemingly interchangeable use of two measures of consumption; total consumption expenditure and consumption expenditure on nondurable goods and services. Using data from Sweden and the US in an error correction model, it is shown that consumption functions based on the two measures exhibit significant differences in several aspects of econometric modelling. Essay 2, coauthored with Thomas Holgersson, considers derivation of a univariate and a multivariate version of a test for asymmetry, based on the third central moment. The logic behind the test is that the dependent variable should correspond to the specification of the econometric model; symmetric with linear models and asymmetric with non-linear models. The main result in the empirical application of the test is that orthodox theory seems to be supported for consumption of both nondurable and durable consumption. The consumption of durables shows little deviation from symmetry in the four-country sample, while the consumption of nondurables is shown to be asymmetric in two out of four cases, the UK and the US. Essay 3 departs from the observation that introducing income uncertainty makes the consumption function concave, implying that the distributions of wealth and income are omitted variables in aggregate Euler equations. This implication is tested through estimation of the distributions over time and augmentation of consumption functions, using Swedish data for 1963-2000. The results show that only the dispersion of wealth is significant, the explanation of which is found in the marked changes of the group of households with negative wealth; a group that according to a concave consumption function has the highest marginal propensity to consume. Essay 4 attempts to empirically specify the nature of the alleged concavity of the consumption function. Using grouped household level Swedish data for 1999-2001, it is shown that the marginal propensity to consume out of current resources, i.e. current income and net wealth, is strictly decreasing in current resources and net wealth, but approximately constant in income. Also, an empirical reciprocal to the stylized theoretical consumption function is estimated, and shown to bear a close resemblance to the theoretical version.