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Determining the effect of pupils' levels of conceptualization of words on reading achievement was the purpose of this study. Levels of conceptualization was measured ona multiple-choice test using three categories of word definitions: abstract, functional and verbalism. The abstract category was interpreted to be abstract conceptualization and consisted of word definitions that involved either synonyms, antonyms or classifications. The functional category was interpreted to be concrete conceptualization and included responses that indicated action or use of a word. Verbalism category included responses that were non-distinguishing or repeated the stimulus word and was considered to be at the concrete conceptualization level.Using stimulus words taken from basal readers, the multiple-choice vocabulary test, named the Levels of Meaning Test, was designed to measure the three levels of conceptualization. Each multiple-choice item included an abstract, functional, and verbalism definition. Students were asked to choose one of the three definitions provided for a stimulus word that they preferred, Satisfactory reliability and validity for the Levels of Meaning Test were found with pilot studies. Vocabulary difficulty in the Levels of Meaning Test was controlled to be no more difficult than fifth grade level, and the test was read aloud to the students to minimize differences in reading ability.Two-hundred-ninety-eight fifth graders from a middle size Mid-western city were tested with the Levels of Meaning Test,. Results on the Levels of Meaning Test were correlated with reading achievement, intelligence, sex, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status. Reading achievement was determined by comprehension and vocabulary subtests of the Gates-MacGinitie Reading Test, Level D. Intelligence was measured with-cthe California Test of Mental Maturity, Short Form, which yielded a verbal, non-verbal, and total I.Q.. Socioeconomic status was rated middle or lower classification according to occupation of head of household. Ethnicity was classed as either white or non-white on the basis of appearance; the non-white population being exclusively Negro. Results of the reading achievement and intelligence test indicated that the sample population approximated national norms in reading ability and intelligence.Correlating responses according to the three levels of meaning with reading achievement resulted in significant correlations, Students who scored high on abstract responses did significantly better on the subtests of the reading achievement test than students who scored high on functional and verbalism responses. Similarly, responses on the Levels of Meaning Test, were positively, significantly correlated with verbal I.Q. Non-verbal and total I.Q. also correlated significantly with levels of meaning though not to the high degree of verbal I.Q..Socioeconomic status was significantly correlated. Middle classification status was positively correlated with responses on the abstract category. Ethnicity was also significantly correlated with the Levels of Meaning Test; white students chose abstract responses more frequently than the non-white students. No significant correlation was found between sex and levels of conceptualization on the Levels of, Meaning Test.Using the multiple regression technique, variables in combination that predicted abstractual levels of conceptualization were high reading achievement, high verbal I.Q., and white ethnicity. Low reading achievement, low verbal I.Q., and non-white ethnicity predicted high scores in the functional and verbalism categories.Results of this study indicated that the ways fifth graders in this sample population conceptualized words were important to reading achievement. Predictive models of students apt to be abstract or concrete conceptualizers were found. Implications for instruction were that concrete conceptualizers should be given special consideration in developing word meaning to facilitate comprehension and subsequent achievement.

Based on two typological frameworks (Dahl, 1979 and Miestamo, 2007), I explore the various strategies used to negate declarative verbal main clauses (standard negation) in 28 languages in order to investigate the correlation between them and basic word order. The 28 languages are divided into three groups according to their basic word order as follows: 11 SOV, 10 SVO and 7 VSO. As much as possible, I have included languages from different language families and different geographical areas in order to eliminate the effect of genetic relationships and borrowings. The results suggest that negative strategies are probably morphological, where the negator is an affix, in SOV languages and frequently syntactic, where the negator is an independent morpheme, in SVO and VSO languages. I also show that symmetric negation, where no structural differences are observed between affirmatives and negatives other than the negative marker (s), is the most common type cross-linguistically.

This is a study of the substantival medical terminology of Aulus Cornelius Celsus (early 1st c.) and Cassius Felix (mid 5th c.), in the fields of Anatomy and Physiology; Pathology; and Therapeutics. Two broad questions are considered: (1) What were the possible and the preferred means of extending the Latin vocabulary in these technical areas in the first and the fifth century A.D.? (2) May any linguistic features be identified as proper or peculiar to Latin medical - or, more generally, technical - terminology? Chapter 1 presents a general characterisation, based on examples of medical language, of modern technical terminology. Certain features of the structure and composition of the modern terminology are observed also in our Latin authors, especially in Cassius Felix. Chapters 2-5 focus each on one linguistic means of term-formation in Celsus and Cassius Felix. These are (Ch.2:) the use of Greek medical terms within the Latin terminology; (Ch.3:) the use of semantic extension, that is the deployment of established Latin words with new, medical reference (sutura 'stitching' → 'cranial suture'); (Ch.4:) the minimal use of compounding (dentifricium 'tooth-rub'), and the use as single terminological units of lexicalised Noun Phrases, Noun + Adjective (ignis sacer a type of skin-disease) or Noun + Genitive (difficultas urinae 'dysury'), here called "Phrasal Terms"; (Ch.5:) the favouring of certain suffixes in deriving Nouns (and some Adjectives) and the striking correlation between suffix and the lexical-semantic field of the derivative (-or and clinical signs and symptoms: dolor, rubor). Chapter 6 presents comparative figures for the two authors and a general working hypothesis that emerges: namely that divergences between Cassius Felix and Celsus may be interpreted as symptoms of the development of a Latin technical medical terminology (notably the integration of Greek and Latin terminology; reduction in the use of non-metaphorical polysemy; increased use of Phrasal Terms in fixed word order; extended use of suffixation to signal the semantic organisation of the terminology and, additionally, to form nominalisations as part of the development of a heavily-nominal style). A programme is adumbrated for testing this hypothesis. Volume II contains brief historical introductions to Celsus and Cassius Felix, the authors and their works; a Glossary of their medical terminology in three parts (ANATOMY and PHYSIOLOGY; PATHOLOGY; THERAPEUTICS); and full word indexes to both authors listed on microfiche.

I dagens samhälle finns det ett stort antal elever som har språksvårigheter i matematikämnet, vilket påverkar elevernas prestationer vid lösningar av matematiska textuppgifter. Denna fallstudie syftar till att undersöka pedagogers och elevers perspektiv när det gäller språksvårigheter inom matematiska textuppgifter. Vi belyser även hur pedagogerna tar hänsyn till elever som har språksvårigheter och hur de agerar för att hjälpa och stötta dem i textuppgifter. Vi blev intresserade av att lyfta fram elevers affektiva och kognitiva hantering av matematiska textuppgifter eftersom vi har personliga erfarenheter om detta sedan tidigare. Fallstudien är uppbyggd kring kvalitativa intervjuer och observationer. I studien deltog 2 klasslärare, en specialpedagog och 24 elever. Resultatet visar att det finns elever som har språksvårigheter inom matematiska textuppgifter på grund av olika påverkande faktorer. Alla pedagoger i intervjuerna är överens om att elevers prestationsförmåga inom matematikförståelse kan bli påverkade av olika faktorer. Pedagoger samarbetar för att hjälpa och stötta dessa elever genom att använda olika metoder och arbetssätt. Språkförståelsen och svåra matematiska begrepp i textuppgifter kan leda till att olika kognitiva och affektiva svårigheter kan dyka upp vid hanteringen av matematiska textuppgifter. Vissa elever var väldigt motiverade i att klara av textuppgifterna, medan andra med svårigheter i språkförståelse fann uppgifternas nivå och struktur alldeles för krävande.

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Within the framework of Government-Binding Theory, this thesis argues that the Germanic languages, including German and related languages, should be analyzed as having INFL-second underlying work order. Contrary to traditional generative treatments of the so-called "verb-second" (V2) phenomenon, it is claimed here, in light of certain subtle asymmetries, that the final target site of the moved verb is INFL (I$ sp0)$ in sentences with pre-verbal subjects and COMP (C$ sp0)$ in those with pre-verbal non-subjects. / It is further maintained that an analysis, as modified and extended in the thesis, in which verb movement is triggered by the Empty Category Principle (ECP) is superior, on both conceptual and empirical grounds, to other theories advanced by generativists to date. A wide variety of clause types in the modern Germanic languages, including in particular German V2 complements and Icelandic infinitival complements, are examined, the final chapter being devoted to a proposal concerning German "parentheticals".

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国立情報学研究所で電子化したコンテンツを使用している。

The unique language of mathematics incorporates words, numbers, symbols and diagrams. These elements and their associated mathematical concepts introduce reading and comprehension requirements that are not experienced in other disciplines. It is the responsibility of teachers to ensure that students are educated about, and encouraged to apply mathematical language in a variety of contexts. This is essential to the development of mathematical problem solving, where word problems often feature in classroom instruction and assessment, and where mathematical language is expected within student responses. Mathematics teachers need to be mindful that the validity of test items used to assess student mathematical problem solving ability are not influenced by other variables such as vocabulary comprehension difficulty. This study discusses the vocabulary which Year 9 students identify as difficult when undertaking word problem tasks in pen and paper test situations. To challenge generalised assumptions that teachers may make, this study focused on development of an instrument to monitor and evaluate the vocabulary comprehension of individual students within the classroom, and with respect to their particular school context. Analyses of findings support the requirement of reading proficiency in mathematics, and in particular, of vocabulary comprehension to student performance on mathematical problem solving assessment comprised of word problems.