<p>The research site has been the Södra Cell Tofte pulp mill. The main focus in this thesis is how to learn about process control. The need for research on this theme is given implicitly in the foundation and construction of the INPRO programme. Norwegian engineering education is discipline oriented, and the INPRO programme aimed at integrating the three disciplines engineering cybernetics, chemical engineering, and organisation and work life science in a single PhD programme. One goal was to produce knowledge of modern production in chemical process plants based on socio-technical thinking.</p><p>In the introduction I outline how my research questions have been developed and the need for doing research in the field of improving process understanding in a continuous process plant.</p><p>This thesis provides answer to the three questions:</p><p>1. What are the learning systems for workers in a process plant?</p><p>2. What is the implication for learning of different socio-technical structures?</p><p>3. How can learning be further improved for workers in the process industry?</p><p>In order to answer these questions and to provide a background for why these questions are important to Tofte, I describe and analyse the case plant Södra Cell Tofte. I find it necessary to make this part rather extensive in order for the reader to understand the context under which Tofte has been developing its learning arenas or learning systems. I use a sociotechnical framework in doing this. I want to introduce and use this framework as I regard it as useful for one of my purposes with this work: Assisting the production unit at Tofte to improve learning. I go through technological improvements that have been carried out from 1980 onwards, and one major organisational change that has taken place. The downsizing and reorganisation that took place in 1992 is of importance as well as the organisational development effort named “Employeeship” that took place in 1996. I had a leave from the INPRO project for almost a year following and evaluating this particular project. The situation at Tofte in 1994 was lack of good learning systems, and after a major reorganisation in 1992 the organisation defined a need for better responsibility distribution and co-operation. </p><p>Chapters 3 and 4 present and discuss theories in order to give a broader background for the research issues in this thesis. In Chapter three I discuss features and characteristics of a continuous process plant as these have consequences on how knowledge and skills can be developed and why process understanding is a necessity. I present socio-technical system thinking (STS) as one way of regarding organisation and management of a process plant, and I further discuss why I find this approach appropriate for providing learning primarily at the shop floor level as an integrated part of daily production.</p><p>In Chapter four I argue that knowledge and skills in production are becoming increasingly important in highly automated remotely controlled process plants and develop a theory of “process understanding”. Process understanding is defined as the ability to predict what is going to happen. In order to predict what is going to happen with a system one firstly need to define the system boundaries. This system can then be regarded as a mental model. One must know and analyse input variables (know where and how to get relevant process information), and by this anticipate, like in a mental simulation, what will happen with the parameters within a defined time period. Different possible options may be mentally tested including what will happen if no corrective actions are taken. An ability to predict what is going to happen with the product, to process equipment or any other process variable, has to be developed and refined in order to operate a process plant optimally. Theories state that a variety of knowledge and skills are required and that some skills can be acquired only through years of experience. The “knowing why” within a process plant also has to be strengthen in order to develop a better process understanding, but as an addition to the experience based “knowing how”.</p><p>Models of learning regarding the demands given by the production systems in order to develop such process understanding are presented and discussed. These are conventional methods, experiential (problem based) learning, and collective learning. The experiential learning model is discussed and what may inhibit learning from experiences to take place in a plant. I have defined the concept “learning arena” and regarded each shift in a control room as a main learning arena since this is the place where theory meets practice. It is further discussed that practice will differ between shifts within same control room due to different mental models of the process. In various learning arenas, different communities-ofpractice must be joined in order to make more shared mental models with the intention to align different practices.</p><p>In Chapter five the research methods used to explore the research questions, and thus to bring forth theories about gaining better process control, are reviewed. I have been inspired by action research methods in order to answer my research questions and to contribute in a necessary change process where development and use of learning arenas have been central. I have been more or less active in these arenas and played back experiences and theories in order to further develop the arenas. Besides participations in learning arenas, methods have been interviews, observations, and written documentations. </p><p>Chapter six is the case description of two different kinds of learning systems at Tofte: Operator Training (OT) - Operator based development and execution of education/ training and Operations Workshop (OW) - Problem based learning aiming at better production practice. I have provided background for the two cases as an answer to the educational challenges Tofte had in 1996 and not least to differences in operational practice between shifts. I describe background, characteristics, and development from what I term different learning arenas where the learning about process control will take place. I have also discussed in what ways these two learning systems can be regarded as learning arenas and briefly the kind of learning that can take place in each arena. In two Operations workshops I provide more details in order to show some strengths of the method.</p><p>In Chapter seven I provide answers to the three research questions outlined in the introduction and further refined in Chapter 4.5. I analyse how different learning types such as individual, experiential, and collective are covered within different learning arenas and how OT and OW meet the requirements for good learning systems in continuous process plants. Further I analyse how tasks regarding education and training are better distributed in a shift and daytime organisation with the two learning systems, and further how learning is integrated with working and thus process operators’ knowledge and skills are better utilised. When I analyse the implication of learning of two different socio-technical structures, I also regard how managers are better enabled to become facilitators for learning. The two arenas have been well established at Tofte, but to a varying degree in the different departments. When regarding Operator training it is still too early to conclude on its impact on results in the pulp mill. However, two Operations workshops have made positive contributions and demonstrated the potential of the method. The strengths of the methods are the collective learning that place in cogenerated learning arenas. In Operator training this strengthens the master-apprentice method, and in Operations workshops it gives a shared understanding and direction for further tasks in process control. Finally, based on the analysis of the first two questions I discuss how learning for workers can be further improved.</p><p>In Chapter eighth I conclude on my theoretical contribution and arguments for further research in the actual fields. Finally, based on my findings I will recommend organisational choices on future actions. STS provides frames and directions for learning to take place within groups along the production line. It is however not the scope of the STS paradigm to provide theories of what constitutes knowledge in operations of a plant. And the STS theories are not developed in order to cover more specifically models for how learning within and across semi-autonomous units and organisational levels may take place. Thus the main contribution of this thesis is learning theories based on two different kinds of learning models as means to develop process understanding.</p>

The research site has been the Södra Cell Tofte pulp mill. The main focus in this thesis is how to learn about process control. The need for research on this theme is given implicitly in the foundation and construction of the INPRO programme. Norwegian engineering education is discipline oriented, and the INPRO programme aimed at integrating the three disciplines engineering cybernetics, chemical engineering, and organisation and work life science in a single PhD programme. One goal was to produce knowledge of modern production in chemical process plants based on socio-technical thinking. In the introduction I outline how my research questions have been developed and the need for doing research in the field of improving process understanding in a continuous process plant. This thesis provides answer to the three questions: 1. What are the learning systems for workers in a process plant? 2. What is the implication for learning of different socio-technical structures? 3. How can learning be further improved for workers in the process industry? In order to answer these questions and to provide a background for why these questions are important to Tofte, I describe and analyse the case plant Södra Cell Tofte. I find it necessary to make this part rather extensive in order for the reader to understand the context under which Tofte has been developing its learning arenas or learning systems. I use a sociotechnical framework in doing this. I want to introduce and use this framework as I regard it as useful for one of my purposes with this work: Assisting the production unit at Tofte to improve learning. I go through technological improvements that have been carried out from 1980 onwards, and one major organisational change that has taken place. The downsizing and reorganisation that took place in 1992 is of importance as well as the organisational development effort named “Employeeship” that took place in 1996. I had a leave from the INPRO project for almost a year following and evaluating this particular project. The situation at Tofte in 1994 was lack of good learning systems, and after a major reorganisation in 1992 the organisation defined a need for better responsibility distribution and co-operation. Chapters 3 and 4 present and discuss theories in order to give a broader background for the research issues in this thesis. In Chapter three I discuss features and characteristics of a continuous process plant as these have consequences on how knowledge and skills can be developed and why process understanding is a necessity. I present socio-technical system thinking (STS) as one way of regarding organisation and management of a process plant, and I further discuss why I find this approach appropriate for providing learning primarily at the shop floor level as an integrated part of daily production. In Chapter four I argue that knowledge and skills in production are becoming increasingly important in highly automated remotely controlled process plants and develop a theory of “process understanding”. Process understanding is defined as the ability to predict what is going to happen. In order to predict what is going to happen with a system one firstly need to define the system boundaries. This system can then be regarded as a mental model. One must know and analyse input variables (know where and how to get relevant process information), and by this anticipate, like in a mental simulation, what will happen with the parameters within a defined time period. Different possible options may be mentally tested including what will happen if no corrective actions are taken. An ability to predict what is going to happen with the product, to process equipment or any other process variable, has to be developed and refined in order to operate a process plant optimally. Theories state that a variety of knowledge and skills are required and that some skills can be acquired only through years of experience. The “knowing why” within a process plant also has to be strengthen in order to develop a better process understanding, but as an addition to the experience based “knowing how”. Models of learning regarding the demands given by the production systems in order to develop such process understanding are presented and discussed. These are conventional methods, experiential (problem based) learning, and collective learning. The experiential learning model is discussed and what may inhibit learning from experiences to take place in a plant. I have defined the concept “learning arena” and regarded each shift in a control room as a main learning arena since this is the place where theory meets practice. It is further discussed that practice will differ between shifts within same control room due to different mental models of the process. In various learning arenas, different communities-ofpractice must be joined in order to make more shared mental models with the intention to align different practices. In Chapter five the research methods used to explore the research questions, and thus to bring forth theories about gaining better process control, are reviewed. I have been inspired by action research methods in order to answer my research questions and to contribute in a necessary change process where development and use of learning arenas have been central. I have been more or less active in these arenas and played back experiences and theories in order to further develop the arenas. Besides participations in learning arenas, methods have been interviews, observations, and written documentations. Chapter six is the case description of two different kinds of learning systems at Tofte: Operator Training (OT) - Operator based development and execution of education/ training and Operations Workshop (OW) - Problem based learning aiming at better production practice. I have provided background for the two cases as an answer to the educational challenges Tofte had in 1996 and not least to differences in operational practice between shifts. I describe background, characteristics, and development from what I term different learning arenas where the learning about process control will take place. I have also discussed in what ways these two learning systems can be regarded as learning arenas and briefly the kind of learning that can take place in each arena. In two Operations workshops I provide more details in order to show some strengths of the method. In Chapter seven I provide answers to the three research questions outlined in the introduction and further refined in Chapter 4.5. I analyse how different learning types such as individual, experiential, and collective are covered within different learning arenas and how OT and OW meet the requirements for good learning systems in continuous process plants. Further I analyse how tasks regarding education and training are better distributed in a shift and daytime organisation with the two learning systems, and further how learning is integrated with working and thus process operators’ knowledge and skills are better utilised. When I analyse the implication of learning of two different socio-technical structures, I also regard how managers are better enabled to become facilitators for learning. The two arenas have been well established at Tofte, but to a varying degree in the different departments. When regarding Operator training it is still too early to conclude on its impact on results in the pulp mill. However, two Operations workshops have made positive contributions and demonstrated the potential of the method. The strengths of the methods are the collective learning that place in cogenerated learning arenas. In Operator training this strengthens the master-apprentice method, and in Operations workshops it gives a shared understanding and direction for further tasks in process control. Finally, based on the analysis of the first two questions I discuss how learning for workers can be further improved. In Chapter eighth I conclude on my theoretical contribution and arguments for further research in the actual fields. Finally, based on my findings I will recommend organisational choices on future actions. STS provides frames and directions for learning to take place within groups along the production line. It is however not the scope of the STS paradigm to provide theories of what constitutes knowledge in operations of a plant. And the STS theories are not developed in order to cover more specifically models for how learning within and across semi-autonomous units and organisational levels may take place. Thus the main contribution of this thesis is learning theories based on two different kinds of learning models as means to develop process understanding.

Ph.d.-afhandling, januar 2009.

<p>Use influences the value of a resource. An element that is not used has no value and is no resource. However, the use can change. In the study the point of departure (chapter 1) is an observation of three actors’ view of the use of a certain resource – goat milk produced in Norway. We refer to this resource as the focal resource. The three actors are a farmer (provider of the resource), a dairy company (user) and a food (technical) researcher. Common to them all is the fact that they are dissatisfied with how the resource is being used at a certain time. Only one, ‘easy’ component of the resource is ‘really’ used and then for making one, rather ‘simple’ product.</p><p>In chapter 2 we put this ‘resource-use’ problem into theoretical perspective. We take it that the use is related both to the resource ‘itself’ and the ‘structure’ in which it is embedded. On these grounds we find a network perspective interesting. More precisely, we employ a model of business networks developed within the ‘industrial networks approach.’ The view is that interaction among actors builds and sustains three dimensions in business network structures; linkage of activities results in certain activity patterns, tying of resources gives particular resource constellations and bonding of actors leads to specific webs of actors. Applying this perspective to our problem we conclude that the focal resource is used ‘poorly’ mainly because it is part of a network structure built around another very similar, but – in terms of volume – much ‘larger’ resource (cow milk). We call this structure ‘the Norwegian milk network.’</p><p>As with any business network, a certain activity pattern, a particular resource constellation and a specific web of actors characterize the Norwegian milk network at the actual point in time (1980s). This network was quite efficient and effective for cow milk, while it was less so for goat milk because this resource was somehow subordinated in the network. Thisinterpretation of the problem leads us to two sets of questions. The first is theoretical; what can actors do to improve the use of a resource that is subordinate in a business network? Here a conceptualizing of the dynamic element in business networks is crucial. The other set of questions is empirical; how can concrete actors facing the actual resource use it ‘better’? E.g. should the resource still be part of the actual network or would it be better to detach it from the prevailing network?</p><p>In chapter 3 we address the latter (empirical) set of questions. We start with a description of some structural characteristics of the ‘big’ actor in the network (Tine – a consortium of regional dairy companies). We also give a short account of features of the focal resource. The rest of the chapter is divided in two parts. In part A we tell (in case 1) the story of the provider (the farmer mentioned above) and how he and his spouse through conflicts and co-operation with other actors (e.g. Tine, public agencies, other farmers and an education centre) are successively able to detach their ‘portion’ of the focal resource from the prevailing network. Then the resource can be tied to other resources. In particular, the couple becomes able to exploit the component of the resource that in many ways is the most valuable but also ‘demanding’ (casein) through making and selling various white (real) cheeses. A traditional regional goat cheese, which the mother of the farmer knew how to make, provides the start of the product development. In many ways this existing product also served as inspiration for establishing the farm dairy in the first place. Later the wife on the farm joins a course in small-scale production of cheese and learns about recipes and how to make some other types of white goat cheeses. In a smaller case (2) we describe among other things how the earlier user of this ‘portion’ of the focal resource ‘reduces’ the use of it still more. Hence, part A concerns mainly development of the focal resource from the use side.</p><p>Part B of chapter 3 consists of five case stories; one main case (5) and four smaller ones (3, 4, 6 and 7). Each of them is organized around a product made from the focal resource. Compared to part A the emphasis is on the focal resource ‘itself;’ how its specific features (especially those of the casein component) are used and not used by the ‘big’ actor by applying resources that by and large are made for the ‘big’ resource. In the main case we learn about how one of these features (taste) is altered. The background is that the ‘big’ actor (Tine)becomes provider of an existing, but for Tine new product for a specialized goat cheese maker localized abroad. To its ‘surprise’ Tine finds that the customer does not like the product; it tastes too strong. After some rounds of ‘trial and error’ in co-operation in order to identify the source of the problem the two actors conclude that the problem has to be sought in the focal resource. Then Tine orchestrates a project to which some ‘technical’ researchers are attached – some from departments within Tine, others working at departments at the national university of agriculture. Tine also uses its relationship to the national organization responsible for goat breeding in order to influence the resource. To make a long story short, the persons from different organizations involved in the project find out that the problematic feature of the resource is due mainly to three ‘factors;’ feed, breeding and storing/transportation. On these grounds another actor (a feed provider) develops a new concentrated fodder especially designed for milking goats. The breeding organization changes its breeding goals. Technicians in Tine experiment with prototypes for adjusted storing and transportation equipment. In this way a request for an existing product from a demanding, foreign customer leads to questioning of the resource ‘Norwegian goat milk.’ Features of the resource become a topic. Moreover, a feature that the ‘big’ actor previously regarded as less good (‘weak’ taste) turns into something good (‘mild’ taste).</p><p>The stories told in chapter 3 evoke the theoretical question posed in chapter 2. Hence, in chapter 4 we discuss on a more abstract level development in a business network. The cases make it clear that we must distinguish between a resource and the actual use of it. Moreover, actual use requires combination of the resource with other resources. Combined with other resources or in other ways the resource can ‘obtain’ other uses. Thus, resources are heterogeneous. Hence, the value of a resource is a question of combination. This can in principle be done in two ways, 1) search for new ways in which existing features of the resource can be combined with those of other resources and 2) search for new or different features of the resource.</p><p>The cases show that <i>interaction</i> between actors plays a crucial role when it comes to identifying and implementing new uses of a resource. One reason for this is the ‘double faced’ (relational) nature of resources; they have both a provision side and a use side. Hence, looking at the resource from one side only can restrict actors’ imagination of potential uses. In other words, interaction can facilitate knowledge creation, which is necessary for discovering new economic uses. When the provision of a resource is confronted with the way it is used unexpected things can ‘start to happen.’ A former provider may start to use a resource and find new ways to combine it (cf. case 1). A user may complain to the provider, who starts to search for possibilities for changing the features of the resource (cf. case 5). Hence, it is actors that set resources in motion. That this motion takes place within the context of a network will mean that actors face hindrances as well as opportunities for finding new uses. Moreover, what are regarded as hindrances and opportunities is a question of ‘the eye that sees,’ that is the actor. One actor may view a certain resource combination as uninteresting, while another may look upon it as interesting. Hence, it is important not to forget that there are actors ‘behind’ any activity pattern and resource constellation and, moreover, that actors relating to the same resource may have bonds to different (other) actors.</p><p>In order to be able to analyse the ties and development in relation to the focal resource we apply a more detailed scheme developed by Håkansson & Waluszewski (1999, 2000, 2001). Here development is seen as a question of interactive, systematic relating of resources of different kinds; resources that are mainly technical (products and facilities) and resources that are by and large social (business units and business relationships). Hence, a certain use of a resource presupposes that a complex of interfaces between different resources – products, facilities, business units and business relationships – are ‘correct’ across firm boundaries. As a consequence, to arrive at a new use may require change in several interfaces involving many actors. To draw a ‘definite’ map of relevant interfaces before acting is thus impossible. Hence, when there has been at least some acting some relevant interfaces may come to the surface.</p><p>In chapter 5 we map, based on the empirical material (chapter 1 and 3), resource constellations at ‘the beginning’ (1980s) and at ‘the end’ (2001). We are ‘stunned’ by the richness and complexity within the constellations. But the mapping also reveals the extent to which the resources (especially at ‘the beginning’) are directed towards the ‘big’ resource (cow milk). Almost all other products, facilities, business units and business relationships are adjusted to this resource. In other words, there is ‘heaviness’ in the resource constellations that we are studying and in which our focal resource is embedded. However, at the end it seems that the focal resource has got some resources ‘of its own;’ not only outside the sphere of the ‘big’ actor (Tine) but also within, in the form of some new products, a new facility and some new business relationships. We then analyse more thoroughly certain interfaces that we find especially relevant for the focal resource and how these differ at ‘the beginning’ compared to at ‘the end.’</p><p>However, in a business network new resource combinations and features are not ‘sufficient’ in themselves. There have to be economic effects (economics) tied to them. In chapter 6 we discuss economic effects and how they can be assessed in a business network context. We identify the importance of calculations. Actors in a business network calculate. These calculations will always be relative in the sense that they will include some resources in a constellation and not others. Moreover, some resources may be regarded as important and hence receive a central position in the calculation, while others may be located at ‘the fringe.’ E.g. case 1 demonstrates that one of the actors (Namdalsmeieriet) views the focal resource as marginal and hence lets it enter their calculation as a cost, while another actor (Skånaliseter)gives prominence to the resource and lets it enter into their calculation as a value. On these grounds we assert that economics is not only an effect of resources being developed; development of resources is in very direct ways also affected by economic calculations.</p><p>Based on these findings we conclude the thesis with some remarks (chapter 7). Here we also briefly present a theme for further research – interaction between business actors and public institutions regarding improved use of agricultural resources.</p><p>In chapter 8 we describe and reflect upon the research process; how we interacted with researchers belonging to different research networks and how cases were successively developed in reciprocal influence with theory. We also give an account of sources and types of data, which mainly have been interviews and documents. In other words, the thesis is a qualitative study. On these grounds we assess the trustworthiness of the study by applying a scheme especially designed for judging qualitative research. Credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability are key concepts in this scheme. We conclude that the study is trustworthy but that the trustworthiness could have been improved in certain ways.</p>

Use influences the value of a resource. An element that is not used has no value and is no resource. However, the use can change. In the study the point of departure (chapter 1) is an observation of three actors’ view of the use of a certain resource – goat milk produced in Norway. We refer to this resource as the focal resource. The three actors are a farmer (provider of the resource), a dairy company (user) and a food (technical) researcher. Common to them all is the fact that they are dissatisfied with how the resource is being used at a certain time. Only one, ‘easy’ component of the resource is ‘really’ used and then for making one, rather ‘simple’ product. In chapter 2 we put this ‘resource-use’ problem into theoretical perspective. We take it that the use is related both to the resource ‘itself’ and the ‘structure’ in which it is embedded. On these grounds we find a network perspective interesting. More precisely, we employ a model of business networks developed within the ‘industrial networks approach.’ The view is that interaction among actors builds and sustains three dimensions in business network structures; linkage of activities results in certain activity patterns, tying of resources gives particular resource constellations and bonding of actors leads to specific webs of actors. Applying this perspective to our problem we conclude that the focal resource is used ‘poorly’ mainly because it is part of a network structure built around another very similar, but – in terms of volume – much ‘larger’ resource (cow milk). We call this structure ‘the Norwegian milk network.’ As with any business network, a certain activity pattern, a particular resource constellation and a specific web of actors characterize the Norwegian milk network at the actual point in time (1980s). This network was quite efficient and effective for cow milk, while it was less so for goat milk because this resource was somehow subordinated in the network. Thisinterpretation of the problem leads us to two sets of questions. The first is theoretical; what can actors do to improve the use of a resource that is subordinate in a business network? Here a conceptualizing of the dynamic element in business networks is crucial. The other set of questions is empirical; how can concrete actors facing the actual resource use it ‘better’? E.g. should the resource still be part of the actual network or would it be better to detach it from the prevailing network? In chapter 3 we address the latter (empirical) set of questions. We start with a description of some structural characteristics of the ‘big’ actor in the network (Tine – a consortium of regional dairy companies). We also give a short account of features of the focal resource. The rest of the chapter is divided in two parts. In part A we tell (in case 1) the story of the provider (the farmer mentioned above) and how he and his spouse through conflicts and co-operation with other actors (e.g. Tine, public agencies, other farmers and an education centre) are successively able to detach their ‘portion’ of the focal resource from the prevailing network. Then the resource can be tied to other resources. In particular, the couple becomes able to exploit the component of the resource that in many ways is the most valuable but also ‘demanding’ (casein) through making and selling various white (real) cheeses. A traditional regional goat cheese, which the mother of the farmer knew how to make, provides the start of the product development. In many ways this existing product also served as inspiration for establishing the farm dairy in the first place. Later the wife on the farm joins a course in small-scale production of cheese and learns about recipes and how to make some other types of white goat cheeses. In a smaller case (2) we describe among other things how the earlier user of this ‘portion’ of the focal resource ‘reduces’ the use of it still more. Hence, part A concerns mainly development of the focal resource from the use side. Part B of chapter 3 consists of five case stories; one main case (5) and four smaller ones (3, 4, 6 and 7). Each of them is organized around a product made from the focal resource. Compared to part A the emphasis is on the focal resource ‘itself;’ how its specific features (especially those of the casein component) are used and not used by the ‘big’ actor by applying resources that by and large are made for the ‘big’ resource. In the main case we learn about how one of these features (taste) is altered. The background is that the ‘big’ actor (Tine)becomes provider of an existing, but for Tine new product for a specialized goat cheese maker localized abroad. To its ‘surprise’ Tine finds that the customer does not like the product; it tastes too strong. After some rounds of ‘trial and error’ in co-operation in order to identify the source of the problem the two actors conclude that the problem has to be sought in the focal resource. Then Tine orchestrates a project to which some ‘technical’ researchers are attached – some from departments within Tine, others working at departments at the national university of agriculture. Tine also uses its relationship to the national organization responsible for goat breeding in order to influence the resource. To make a long story short, the persons from different organizations involved in the project find out that the problematic feature of the resource is due mainly to three ‘factors;’ feed, breeding and storing/transportation. On these grounds another actor (a feed provider) develops a new concentrated fodder especially designed for milking goats. The breeding organization changes its breeding goals. Technicians in Tine experiment with prototypes for adjusted storing and transportation equipment. In this way a request for an existing product from a demanding, foreign customer leads to questioning of the resource ‘Norwegian goat milk.’ Features of the resource become a topic. Moreover, a feature that the ‘big’ actor previously regarded as less good (‘weak’ taste) turns into something good (‘mild’ taste). The stories told in chapter 3 evoke the theoretical question posed in chapter 2. Hence, in chapter 4 we discuss on a more abstract level development in a business network. The cases make it clear that we must distinguish between a resource and the actual use of it. Moreover, actual use requires combination of the resource with other resources. Combined with other resources or in other ways the resource can ‘obtain’ other uses. Thus, resources are heterogeneous. Hence, the value of a resource is a question of combination. This can in principle be done in two ways, 1) search for new ways in which existing features of the resource can be combined with those of other resources and 2) search for new or different features of the resource. The cases show that interaction between actors plays a crucial role when it comes to identifying and implementing new uses of a resource. One reason for this is the ‘double faced’ (relational) nature of resources; they have both a provision side and a use side. Hence, looking at the resource from one side only can restrict actors’ imagination of potential uses. In other words, interaction can facilitate knowledge creation, which is necessary for discovering new economic uses. When the provision of a resource is confronted with the way it is used unexpected things can ‘start to happen.’ A former provider may start to use a resource and find new ways to combine it (cf. case 1). A user may complain to the provider, who starts to search for possibilities for changing the features of the resource (cf. case 5). Hence, it is actors that set resources in motion. That this motion takes place within the context of a network will mean that actors face hindrances as well as opportunities for finding new uses. Moreover, what are regarded as hindrances and opportunities is a question of ‘the eye that sees,’ that is the actor. One actor may view a certain resource combination as uninteresting, while another may look upon it as interesting. Hence, it is important not to forget that there are actors ‘behind’ any activity pattern and resource constellation and, moreover, that actors relating to the same resource may have bonds to different (other) actors. In order to be able to analyse the ties and development in relation to the focal resource we apply a more detailed scheme developed by Håkansson &amp; Waluszewski (1999, 2000, 2001). Here development is seen as a question of interactive, systematic relating of resources of different kinds; resources that are mainly technical (products and facilities) and resources that are by and large social (business units and business relationships). Hence, a certain use of a resource presupposes that a complex of interfaces between different resources – products, facilities, business units and business relationships – are ‘correct’ across firm boundaries. As a consequence, to arrive at a new use may require change in several interfaces involving many actors. To draw a ‘definite’ map of relevant interfaces before acting is thus impossible. Hence, when there has been at least some acting some relevant interfaces may come to the surface. In chapter 5 we map, based on the empirical material (chapter 1 and 3), resource constellations at ‘the beginning’ (1980s) and at ‘the end’ (2001). We are ‘stunned’ by the richness and complexity within the constellations. But the mapping also reveals the extent to which the resources (especially at ‘the beginning’) are directed towards the ‘big’ resource (cow milk). Almost all other products, facilities, business units and business relationships are adjusted to this resource. In other words, there is ‘heaviness’ in the resource constellations that we are studying and in which our focal resource is embedded. However, at the end it seems that the focal resource has got some resources ‘of its own;’ not only outside the sphere of the ‘big’ actor (Tine) but also within, in the form of some new products, a new facility and some new business relationships. We then analyse more thoroughly certain interfaces that we find especially relevant for the focal resource and how these differ at ‘the beginning’ compared to at ‘the end.’ However, in a business network new resource combinations and features are not ‘sufficient’ in themselves. There have to be economic effects (economics) tied to them. In chapter 6 we discuss economic effects and how they can be assessed in a business network context. We identify the importance of calculations. Actors in a business network calculate. These calculations will always be relative in the sense that they will include some resources in a constellation and not others. Moreover, some resources may be regarded as important and hence receive a central position in the calculation, while others may be located at ‘the fringe.’ E.g. case 1 demonstrates that one of the actors (Namdalsmeieriet) views the focal resource as marginal and hence lets it enter their calculation as a cost, while another actor (Skånaliseter)gives prominence to the resource and lets it enter into their calculation as a value. On these grounds we assert that economics is not only an effect of resources being developed; development of resources is in very direct ways also affected by economic calculations. Based on these findings we conclude the thesis with some remarks (chapter 7). Here we also briefly present a theme for further research – interaction between business actors and public institutions regarding improved use of agricultural resources. In chapter 8 we describe and reflect upon the research process; how we interacted with researchers belonging to different research networks and how cases were successively developed in reciprocal influence with theory. We also give an account of sources and types of data, which mainly have been interviews and documents. In other words, the thesis is a qualitative study. On these grounds we assess the trustworthiness of the study by applying a scheme especially designed for judging qualitative research. Credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability are key concepts in this scheme. We conclude that the study is trustworthy but that the trustworthiness could have been improved in certain ways.

<p>The construction of the thesis is based on the following logics:</p><p>Three perspectives on Innovation are developed</p><p>To try to create a more complete understanding of innovation systems, the five projects involved in my thesis are analysed, applying the following three theory perspectives:</p>

The construction of the thesis is based on the following logics: Three perspectives on Innovation are developed To try to create a more complete understanding of innovation systems, the five projects involved in my thesis are analysed, applying the following three theory perspectives:

Implementing a model of competence building in the XpressMP and building a case based on a simplified version of a hospital gave room for computational studies. A lower amount of nurse rotation lead to lower cost of external hires and thus decreased the cost of absence. The hospital chose to invest in gained competence, though even by several rotations the nurses gained mostly competence and special expertise within their belonging home wards. The main result of this thesis was the positive change in cost, by the increase of nurses competence. Compared to the solution of working with the initial competence profile, the optimal profile found by the model proved to be more beneficial even though the building phase produce an extra yearly fixed cost by increased salary.

Article 1:By comparing each of 102 Scandinavian non-listed buyout targets with reference groups consisting of 20 European firms matched on industry and total asset size, we find strong evidence of a relationship between operating characteristics and the likelihood of being acquired by a buyout fund. The results are inconsistent with both the agency cost and the underperformance arguments explored in earlier the literature that is mainly focused on listed targets. Our analysis suggests that superior growth and revenue generation characterize Scandinavian non-listed private equity target companies. At the same time they seem to be struggling to control costs and optimize their capital structure, causing unstable medium-term performance. A questionnaire-based survey of Scandinavian PE fund managers supports these findings, but also stresses the importance of long-term prospects for potential target companiesArticle II:By comparing the performance of 36 Norwegian companies owned by private equity funds with comparable listed firms, we find evidence of superior crisis management capabilities in the private equity owned firms. Multifaceted analyses of financial indicators suggest that the main drivers are the funds&#146; active ownership and their professionals&#146; ability to implement strategic changes and drive operational efficiency. The results also suggest that private equity owned firms are better suited than publicly listed peers to leverage their capital structures, despite the increased bankruptcy risk. We believe this ability mainly is due to the private equity owned firms&#146; superior profitability, their relative ease of adjusting strategy and capital to the changing circumstances, and the long-term relationships private equity funds have with banks.

Trevirke som er blitt t&#248;rket og komprimert til pellets har et h&#248;yt energiinnhold og er gunstig til oppvarmingsform&#229;l. I Norge i dag foreg&#229;r distribusjonen av trepellets ved landbasert transport, og det eksisterer f&#229; distribusjonsnettverk langs kysten. Det er utgangspunktet for denne masteroppgaven som ansl&#229;r l&#248;nnsomheten ved etablering av et maritimt distribusjonsnettverk. Det eksisterer per dags dato syv ulike produsenter av trepellets i Norge. Av disse skiller Biowood Norway seg ut med en langt h&#248;yere produksjonskapasitet enn de &#248;vrige. Denne produsenten er ogs&#229; tilrettelagt for maritim distribusjon med sin lokasjon p&#229; kysten av M&#248;re og Romsdal. Ved utgangen av 2010 var den totale ettersp&#248;rselen i Norge p&#229; 58 500 tonn pellets per &#229;r, mens det forventede tallet for 2013 er omlag 200 000 tonn. Det er ventet at 80 % av ettersp&#248;rselen vil falle innenfor kystn&#230;re str&#248;k. Pelletsindustrien i Norge st&#229;r med det fremfor en periode med sterk vekst.I denne rapporten utvikles det en optimeringsmodell som genererer et maritimt distribusjonsnettverk som er optimalt med tanke p&#229; profitt. Dette nettverket benyttes til &#229; representere den potensielle l&#248;nnsomheten ved maritim distribusjon av trepellets langs norskekysten. Optimeringsmodellen er nyskapende i m&#229;ten den utnytter den geografiske strukturen p&#229;. Modellen er deterministisk og av strategisk/taktisk karakter, der m&#229;lfunksjonen uttrykker verdikjedens totale profitt og maksimeres. L&#248;nnsomheten vurderes ut i fra et verdikjedeperspektiv og omfatter produksjon av pellets, sj&#248;basert transport fra produsent til havn, lagring i havn, samt landbasert transport fra havn til sluttkunde. I utgangspunktet formuleres modellen kun med de restriksjonene som er n&#248;dvendige for &#229; beskrive problemet. For &#229; unng&#229; symmetriske l&#248;sninger som gir en lite effektiv bruk av maskinvaren innf&#248;res symmetrikutt. Det innf&#248;res ogs&#229; tilleggsrestriksjoner som styrker line&#230;rrelakseringen. Hovedhensikten er &#229; redusere m&#229;lfunksjonens &#248;vre grense, og f&#229; en mindre differanse mellom &#248;vre grense og beste l&#248;sning funnet. Gjennom en teknisk analyse reduseres den omtalte differansen fra 22,3 % til 7,8 %. En differanse p&#229; 7,8 % regnes som akseptabelt tatt i betraktning usikkerheten i inndataene.Den &#248;konomiske analysen viser at l&#248;nnsomheten ved etablering av et maritimt distribusjonsnettverk er 18,3 MNOK per &#229;r. Det gir en driftsmargin p&#229; dr&#248;ye 8 %. Den forventede &#229;rlige ettersp&#248;rselen i omr&#229;det er 160 000 tonn, og analysen viser at dersom den faller under 35 000 tonn vil den maritime distribusjonen ikke lenger v&#230;re l&#248;nnsom. En nullpunktsanalyse av differansen mellom salgspris og produksjonskostnad per tonn pellets viser at differansen m&#229; minimum overstige 175 NOK. F&#248;lgelig vil en reduksjon i salgspris p&#229; 8 %, eller en &#248;kning i produksjonskostnad p&#229; 10 %, f&#248;re til at den maritime distribusjonen ikke lenger er l&#248;nnsom. Vi ser at l&#248;nnsomheten er mer f&#248;lsom for endringer i dekningsbidraget enn for endringer i ettersp&#248;rselen. Endelig konklusjon blir at det i fremtiden vil v&#230;re &#248;konomisk l&#248;nnsomt med maritim distribusjon av trepellets langs norskekysten, forutsatt at ettersp&#248;rselen overstiger 35 000 tonn per &#229;r og at dekningsbidraget overstiger 175 NOK per tonn.