Attachment Theory posits that the caregiver has primary responsibility in fostering attachment security; however, children play increasingly active roles in shaping the quality of interactions as they grow beyond infancy (Bowlby, 1969). There has been limited research on transactional relationships between caregivers and children and their associations with attachment. While Interpersonal Theory has historically been utilized to understand adult interpersonal interactions and their associations with relationship quality, it may provide an avenue to explore parent-child transactional processes. Within Interpersonal Theory, interactions can be categorized as complementary and non-complementary. Yet, these unidimensional constructs make it impossible to determine the relative effects of when complementarity and non-complementarity have positive or negative valences. As such, this study investigated 143 mother–preschooler dyads (64 Child Maltreatment [CM] dyads and 79 non-CM dyads) to examine the associations between variations in two novel types complementarity and non-complementarity and attachment security. Positive complementarity included interactions that were warm and affiliative that elicited the same responses in return. Negative complementarity included interactions that were hostile and aversive that elicited those same responses in return. Positive non-complementarity was characterized by warm and affiliative parent behaviors and child hostile and rejecting behaviors. Negative non-complementarity was characterized by disaffiliative and hostile parent behaviors and warm and affiliative child behaviors. Separate logistic regression analyses revealed that positive complementarity and positive non-complementarity were significantly associated with an increased likelihood of secure attachment. Negative complementarity and negative non-complementarity were not significantly associated with an increased likelihood of insecure attachment. Results suggest that the positive valences of complementarity and non-complementarity are associated with attachment security, such that children in dyads where mothers maintained warm and affiliative behaviors with their child, whether the child was connecting and trusting the mother or withdrawing and sulking, were more likely to be securely attached. Thus, a mother’s ability to display positive and sensitive behaviors during moment-to-moment interactions with their child regardless of child’s response is important to a child’s attachment security.

“Non-affective” psychotic disorders are in fact associated with a high rate of emotional disorders. A number of attachment-based models of impairments in emotion regulation and mentalization in psychosis have been put forward. The present thesis aimed to explore psychobiological markers of emotion regulation in order to develop and pilot a novel psychological intervention. The portfolio consists of six peer-reviewed published articles. Four studies were conducted involving 167 psychosis patients and 66 community controls resulting in four original articles, a theory paper and a metaanalysis. Paper 1- 3 explored emotion regulation using different methods (self-report, hormonal, attachment-based narrative). Paper 4 lays out a compassion-focused model for promoting emotional recovery from psychosis. Paper 5 presents data from a feasibility trial of Group Compassion Focused Therapy. Paper 6 presents an updated attachment- and compassion-focused model of emotion regulation and mentalization in the context of a meta-analysis of effects of intranasal oxytocin on symptoms and social cognition in psychosis. Childhood trauma – especially emotional abuse - was strongly associated with dissociation in psychosis patients compared to non-psychotic community controls – most strongly in chronic patients (Paper 1). Psychosis patients with childhood trauma showed significantly lower basal cortisol levels indicative of impaired stress regulation than those without childhood trauma (Paper 2). Impaired emotion regulation operationalised as attachment-based mentalisation was associated with problematic adolescent development and emotional and interpersonal adaptation to a first episode of psychosis in qualitative interviews. A novel attachment-based model for improving emotion regulation in psychosis by way of strengthening the caregiving/ receiving and affiliation system through Compassion Focused Therapy (CFT) was put forward (Paper 4). A feasibility trial showed that group CFT was safe, well-accepted and associated with greater clinical improvement and greater increases in compassion compared to treatment as usual. Increases in compassion in CFT were associated with reductions in shame, perceived social marginalisation, fear or relapse and depression (Paper 5). A metaanalysis of oxytocin administration as a biological way of strengthening the care-giving/receiving and affiliation system in psychosis was conducted yielding medium effects despite significant heterogeneity (Paper 6). Findings replicated the strong association between childhood trauma and dissociation in psychosis patients relative to controls highlighting the importance of emotional abuse and suggesting underlying difficulties with regulating distress related to early interpersonal trauma. Lower basal cortisol in patients with childhood trauma appeared to support the presence of emotion regulation difficulties due to early interpersonal trauma on a physiological level. Qualitative findings helped to generate hypotheses about inhibitors and facilitators of recovery and targets for intervention including the moderating role of mentalization. A novel attachment- and compassion-focused model was outlined and successfully piloted yielding important signals of change such as increases in compassion, which appear to reduce depression and social marginalisation in particular. This model helped account for inconsistencies in oxytocin studies of psychosis. In summary, findings extend existing research on emotion regulation in psychosis by supporting links to early interpersonal trauma and attachment and offer a promising novel attachment-and compassion-focused psychological intervention and a comprehensive biopsychosocial framework for further improving emotion regulation and mentalization in people with psychosis.

Introduction: Research indicates that children with an intellectual disability [ID] are at an increased risk of developing attachment difficulties and subsequent affect regulation difficulties. Attachment theory may further understanding of the risk factors for individuals with an ID experiencing mental health problems, challenging behaviour and emotional difficulties. However, there is a paucity of research into attachment and adults with ID and there is a lack of valid and reliable measures for assessing attachment security for this group. The Manchester Attachment Scale-Third Party Observational Measure [MAST] was developed to assess degree of secure attachment behaviour for adults with ID and the current study examined the psychometric properties of the MAST. Method: Professional carers [N=40] supporting individuals with an ID completed the MAST and other measures related to the construct of attachment theory (subscales of the Edward Zigler-Yale Personality Questionnaire[EZPQ] and Emotional Rating Scale [ERS] as well as the Learning Disability Casemix Scale [LDCS) regarding individuals with an ID they were supporting [N=57]. Individuals with an ID [N=14] completed the Self-report Assessment of Attachment Security [SRAAS]. Results: The MAST was found to have good internal consistency and test-retest reliability. The convergent validity of the MAST was indicated by positive correlation with the EZPQ subscales (negative reaction tendency, obedience, positive reaction tendency and outerdirectedness) and scores on the SRAAS. The MAST was found to be correlated with both levels of ID and presence of challenging behaviour as measured by LDCS scores. Conclusion: These current results provide preliminary support for the reliability and validity of the MAST as a measure of secure attachment behaviour for adults with ID. The results provide support for previous research that indicates a relationship between attachment security and level of ID and challenging behaviour. The results of the study and the implications of attachment theory for adults with ID are discussed.

Viewing motivation to volunteer through an attachment theory perspective may enhance understanding of volunteering motivations. A questionnaire was administered to (N=155) emerging adult college students using a Lykert-type scale (1 - 7) to assess attachment (Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991) and motivation to volunteer (Omoto & Snyder, 1994). Five forward linear regression analyses were conducted to identify significant predictors of attachment style on motivation to volunteer. For each analysis, one of the five motivations to volunteer variables (values, understanding, esteem enhancement, personal development, community concern) was regressed on the combination of four attachment style variables (secure, avoidant, anxious ambivalent, dismissing avoidant). Findings indicate that Secure significantly predicted Values, Understanding, and Community Concern; Anxious Ambivalent predicted Understanding, Personal Development, Community Concern, and Esteem Enhancement; and Dismissing Avoidant predicted Understanding. These findings partially support the hypothesized notion that securely individuals would likely report selfless motivations; whereas, insecure individuals would likely report self-serving motivations.

The poor outcomes of young people leaving foster care are well documented and demand a focus on placement permanency and interventions that encourage stability (Rubin et al, 2007). The need for better support for foster carers is widely acknowledged (Warman, Pallet & Scott, 2006; Morgan & Baron, 2011). To provide effective support an understanding of foster carers support needs is required. A qualitative approach explored the support needs of foster carers who look after young people perceived to have emotional and behavioural difficulties. Semi- structured interviews were undertaken with 17 foster carers employed by a local authority or an Independent Fostering Agency. A grounded theory methodology within a social constructionist framework was used to develop a new theoretical understanding from the data. A central storyline of ‘keeping your head above water’ emerged and appeared to encapsulate daily struggles and ways of managing. Categories which contributed to this were ‘becoming isolated’ from other professionals, ‘role ambiguity’ regarding the multiple meanings attached to being a foster carer, ‘making sense of emotional and behavioural difficulties’ highlighting a need to understand the children cared for, ‘a focus on behaviours’ illuminating approaches to parenting and ‘unmet emotional needs’ which is a possible consequence of focussing on children’s behaviours. The emergent theory may hold potential for developing psychological formulations, interventions and training programmes for foster carers. Suggestions for future support are put forward based on the new theoretical framework. Applications of the findings to Counselling Psychology are discussed in detail.

The psychological concept of attachment began to take hold in the 1950s and 1960s. This time period also began a significant period of social and legislative change impacting on the field of child protection. These social science and legal developments have been mutually reinforcing and this thesis examines those developments over the course of the 60 years since Attachment Theory first emerged from the work of John Bowlby. This examination will include a review of the fundamentals of Attachment Theory with a particular focus on the implications of those developmental lessons on the circumstances of children removed from the care of their families due to risk or maltreatment. Following a review of the fundamentals of Attachment Theory, this examination will review the influence of those principles on the laws of child protection in Ontario – through changes in the legislation and through decisions of the Supreme Court of Canada and the Courts of Ontario. Finally, this thesis will examine some of the ways in which the attachment needs of Ontario’s children are being served or failed with regard to both the need for early establishment of permanency for children as well as the continuity of the care arrangements for children up to and including the point at which permanent plans are established. This examination of the legislation and the case law will demonstrate that Ontario has seen a progressive shift away from family reunification as a fixed priority and toward the examination of each child’s individual developmental needs. This includes an acceptance of the application of Attachment Theory and its principles as one significant means of describing those needs and assessing the best interests of children. / Thesis (Master, Law) -- Queen's University, 2013-04-29 01:15:06.929

Background/Aims: Children and young people in residential care often exhibit complex emotional and behavioural needs. Attachment theory is frequently used to explain these difficulties, whereby a young person's early experience can influence their internal representations of relationships and their subsequent interactions within the residential milieu. Thus, residential childcare staff have a fundamental role supporting young people, to facilitate therapeutic change and mitigate poor long-term outcomes. Policy and research often recommend staff training and attachment-informed care, yet there is very limited understanding of how this translates into practice or influences outcomes. Therefore, this thesis aimed to systematically review literature on the types, measurement and effectiveness of residential staff training, focussed upon psychosocial outcomes. It also aimed to construct an explanatory theory of how residential staff make sense of, and use, attachment theory in practice. Methods: Research aims are addressed in two studies. Literature on residential staff training was systematically reviewed in Journal Article 1. This was conducted through a search of electronic databases, quality assessment of included studies, and subsequent narrative synthesis. Journal Article 2 used qualitative methodology in the form of constructivist grounded theory. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with twenty residential staff members through an iterative process of data collection and analysis, and theoretical sampling, until theoretical saturation was achieved. Results: Eighteen studies were included in the systematic review. Results highlight heterogeneous staff training, often evaluated through measurement of staff knowledge, skills and/or attitudes, and/or child behaviour frequency. Findings offer tentative support for the positive impact of training upon staff skills but other outcomes remain unclear. Results from Journal Article 2 indicate that staff had difficulty articulating attachment theory and often did not have a coherent narrative to describe attachment theory to practice links. Instead, they focussed upon a natural process of building relationships within a challenging context, with attachment theory only coming to the forefront when deemed relevant. Conclusions: The effectiveness of residential staff training remains unclear due to the methodological limitations of included studies. Significant improvements are identified for future evaluations of training to address this issue. Future staff training may benefit from limiting jargon, developing theory to practice links, and facilitating staff reflective function. Recommendations of attachment-informed care must also recognise the complexity of the residential system; and the current disparity between attachment theory narrative within policy and research, and practice.

Abstract The quality of life of probationers remains low when reestablishing life in society. Research has been conducted on how siblings can provide support to juveniles, yet minimal research supported how adult sibling relationships have affected probationers' quality of life. The purpose of this study was to explore the phenomenon of the effect sibling relationships may have on probationers' quality of life. Attachment theory was used as a theoretical framework to support the factors relating to sibling relationship types. This research study used a qualitative interview design in order to explore probationers' perspective of their sibling relationship type and quality of life. The sample (N = 6) came from Transcendence Foundation, a facility providing support to probationers in the South Central Region of Minnesota. A thematic analysis was used to interpret the perceptions probationers have of their relationship with their sibling and how it affects their quality of life. Based on the results from past research studies and this research study, siblings with supportive, warm, and positive relationships reduce the negative aspects and feelings of probationers. The results of this study could potentially help probationers increase their quality of life through the development of interventions involving sibling support. A higher quality of life can create positive social change for probationers reentering into society by increasing their feelings of self-worth and reducing recidivism.

This research developed two best-fitting structural equation models of risk factors for adolescent depression and suicidality: a core model, which included parenting factors, gender, depression, and suicidality, and an extended model, which also encompassed personality traits (Introversion and Impulsivity) and mood factors (Anxiety and Anger). Further, this research investigated the consistency of model fit across time (Le., 1 month & 12 months) and samples, and explored the effectiveness of the ReachOut! Internet site as a psychoeducational prevention strategy for adolescent depression and suicidality. Gender, age, and location differences were also explored. Participants were 185 Year-9 students and 93 Year-10 students aged 14 - 16 years, from seven secondary schools in regional and rural Victoria. Students were given a survey which included the Parental Bonding Instrument (Parker, Tupling, & Brown, 1979), the Millon Adolescent Personality Inventory (Millon, Green, & Meagher, 1982), the Profile of Mood States Inventory (McNair & Lorr, 1964), items on suicidal behaviour including some questions from the Revised Adolescent Suicide Questionnaire (Pearce & Martin, 1994), and questions on loss and general demographics. Results supported an indirect model of risk factors, with family factors directly influencing personality factors, which in turn influenced mood factors, including depression, which then influenced suicidality. At the theoretical level, results supported Attachment Theory (Bowlby, 1969), demonstrating that perceived parenting styles that are warm and not overly controlling are more conducive to an adolescent's emotional well-being than are parenting styles that are cold and controlling. Further, results supported Millon's theory of personality (1981), demonstrating that parenting style influences a child's personality. Short-term intervention effects from the internet site were a decrease in Introversion for the full sample, and decreased Inhibition and Suicidality for a high-risk subgroup. Long-term age effects were decreased Inhibition and increased Anxiety for the fall sample. There was also a probable intervention effect for Depression for the high-risk subgroup. No location differences for the risk factors were found between regional and rural areas.

This paper seeks to explore the development of attachments in humans as seen through Bowlby's (1980) attachment theory. Components of the theory which focus on how attachments are formed and how they influence future behavior are explored. These are used to then examine how attachment theory applies to the attachment patterns seen in homosexual males.