Decisions made under risk have been primarily studied within economic contexts (Platt & Huettel, 2008). This has led to the development of sound methods and models for studying risky choice behavior (Rangel, Camerer & Montague, 2008). In particular, these models are helpful for estimating how much risk an individual is willing to tolerate. However, there may be a limit in the extent to which we can generalize these estimations, in that economic models do not take into account the underlying social preferences that often guide decision makers (Fehr & Camerer, 2007; Fehr & Schmidt, 2004). This suggests that an individual's propensity for risk may be different depending on social or non-social information present within the environment (Bohnet, Greig, Herrmann & Zeckhauser, 2008). The present study aimed to: (i) assess how risk preferences may differ across social and non-social contexts; (ii) identify common and distinct neural correlates of social and non-social risk; and (iii) determine neural characteristics associated with individual sensitivities to social and non-social risk. Subjects (N=30) played an adaptation of the Trust Game while their blood-oxygen-level-dependent response was monitored using functional magnetic resonance imaging. Differences in risk preferences across social and non-social conditions as well as neuroimaging correlates of social and non-social risk will be discussed. / Master of Science

This study investigated the electromyogram eyeblink startle response in relationship to individual differences in dimensions of attention and arousability as assessed by the Cognitive Failures Questionnaire (Broadbent, Cooper, Fitzgerald & Parkes, 1982) and the Arousal Predisposition Scale (Coren, 1990). Individuals (n=48) fulfilling the cutoff criteria of the questionnaires compiled three groups: High Arousal/High Cognitive Failures, High Arousal/Low Cognitive Failures and Low Arousal/Low Cognitive Failures. The eyeblink startle response was examined in two conditions, one in which participants were instructed to attend to loud, startling acoustic stimuli and a second in which they were instructed to ignore the startling stimuli by mentally counting backwards by threes. It was hypothesized that groups would differ from each other in both amplitude and latency of their startle response. More specifically, if top-down controlled attentional processes mediated the startle response under such conditions, it was expected that those with less distractibility would exhibit less startle during the ignore task than those who were more distractible. If arousal level mediated the startle response, it was expected that those with high arousability would exhibit increased overall startle response. If the ignore condition was more arousing, it was expected that those with high arousability would exhibit more startle during the ignore condition than those with low arousability. It was expected that the startle response between men and women would differ significantly. Furthermore, it was hypothesized that those participants reporting high distractibility would demonstrate a larger Stroop Effect than those reporting low distractibility. Results indicated that for mean startle response amplitude there was a significant Attention Group X Condition interaction but not an Arousal Group X Condition interaction. Post hoc tests did not reveal one condition to be greater in mean amplitude than another. When including sex as a factor, for mean onset latency there was a significant Attention X Gender interaction and a significant Arousal X Gender interaction. High arousal and high distractible men also showed significantly more significantly more startling than low distractible men and low distractible women. There were no significant differences of the Stroop Effect found between high and low distractible participants. Taken together, it appears that controlled top-down processing can influence the startle response when manipulations of the direction of attention are given. It also appears that men are more extreme in their responsivity than women. Implications for future research are discussed. / Master of Science

It is important to utilize training that facilitates the best learning and performance on real tasks. Much research has been conducted to develop theories of learning and determine beneficial training characteristics. Still, this research often remains as separated characteristic recommendations and is not used to ascertain the best training method. This occurs even though most individuals simply use a training method and do not bother to go into the literature for recommendations each time they are looking to train or teach something. Generalizability is also often a factor lacking in research on training methods. This lack of research performed includes those that could determine whether or not a specific training method is generalizable to older adults. Minimalism is a training method that could potentially alleviate some of the problems older adults experience when training. Yet, up to the time of this study, no empirical evidence had been gathered to compare minimalism to traditional training methods for older adults. This study attempted to gain empirical data to test the hypothesis that minimalism is more beneficial as well as to gain initial subjective data from participants. This study also endeavored to conduct a preliminary examination of individual difference factors and their affects on performance and subjective reports in a training environment. Results indicated that, although significant results were not obtained, minimalism may still be an area worth pursuing for training older adults. Effects of interactions, which included gender and learning style, are discussed. Implications, as well as recommendations and conclusions, of the study are presented. / Master of Science

Adolescence is a critical developmental period characterized by neurobiological changes and exposure to novel experiences. According to the Center for Disease Control, approximately 70% of adolescent deaths in the United States are due to risky behaviors such as reckless driving and risky sexual behavior (Kann et al., 2016). In order to better understand what drives adolescent risk-taking, the current studies utilized an interdisciplinary approach, which combined behavioral economic models and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to understand neurobehavioral mechanisms of risky choice. The focus of the current studies is to investigate the extent to which neurobehavioral mechanisms of risky choice change across adolescence, and to identify individual differences that explain real-world risky behavior. In Study 1, we show that behavioral sensitivity to risk and neural correlates of risk processing change across a critical period of adolescence. Importantly, our results indicate that individual differences in neural, not behavioral risk sensitivity are predictive of future engagement in health risk behaviors. In Study 2, we examined the relation between inter-individual differences in adolescent expectations of valued rewards and self-reported risky behavior using an adapted behavioral economic model. Implications and future directions for adolescent risky decision-making are discussed. / Ph. D. / According to the Center for Disease Control, approximately 70% of adolescent deaths in the United States are due to risky behaviors such as reckless driving and risky sexual behavior (Kann et al., 2016). In order to prevent and reduce such risk-taking behavior during adolescence, it is essential to improve our current understanding of the mechanisms contributing to risky decision-making. One promising mechanism that may be critical in guiding adolescents either toward or away from risky behavior is the extent to which adolescents are sensitive to the risk or likelihood of receiving potential rewarding outcomes. To this end, the current work leveraged the used of a longitudinal design with an interdisciplinary approach that combined the use of behavioral economic models, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), and developmental psychological theory to better understand how adolescents develop risk sensitivity at both the behavioral and neural levels. Importantly, our results in Study 1 indicated that individual differences in neural, not behavioral risk sensitivity are predictive of future engagement in health risk behaviors. In Study 2, we used an adapted behavioral economic model to identify individual differences in adolescent expectations of valued rewards, and assess the relation of these differences to self-reported risky behavior. This research illuminates the critical role that neurobehavioral risk sensitivity might play during risky decision-making, which may have implications for the prevention and amelioration of adverse health risk behaviors.

Yes / There has been an intense discussion among the public about the colour of a dress, shown in a picture posted originally on Tumblr (http://swiked. tumblr.com/post/112073818575/ guys-please-help-me-is-this-dress white-and; accessed on 10:56 am GMT on Tue 24 Mar 2015). Some people argue that they see a white dress with golden lace, while others describe the dress as blue with black lace. Here we show that the question “what colour is the dress?” has more than two answers. / The full text was made available at the end of the publisher's embargo, 14th May 2016

In 2002 the number of reported nonfatal injury and illness cases in the construction industry involving days away from work was over 98,000 for European-Americans (non Hispanic) and 26,000 for Hispanics. Disproportionate to the number of injury and illness cases, the construction industry is comprised of 68% European-Americans, 7% African-Americans and 23% Hispanics (BLS, 2004a). Based on the expected increase in employment of construction laborers and the increase in the number of injuries and fatalities among specific ethnic groups, a need exists to study disparities across cultural groups to determine the basis for injury and fatality differences between these ethnic groups. The purpose of this research was to contribute to the literature, an effective method for predicting the risk judgments of laborers employed by small construction firms. Predicting the risk judgments of laborers will assist in developing training programs to address these risk factors, which ultimately will reduce injury and fatality rates. Thirty-six construction laborers , 18 European-American and 18 Hispanic, were recruited for the research. Both ethnic groups were divided into two groups; the control and experimental groups. The control groups viewed a generic concrete construction video and the experimental groups viewed a People-Based Safety video. Each of the participants completed a demographic form, questionnaires, and the narrative simulations (pre-test). Following the narrative simulations the participants rated the narrative simulations, watched a video designated by group, and completed the narrative simulations (post-test). The narrative simulations were used to assess their ability to make risk judgments based on the information presented in the video. The questionnaires completed measured various individual differences, and were administered to detect confounding factors that may not be directly attributed to ethnicity. These questionnaires included: Phinney's (1992) Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure, Leonard, Hill, and Karners' (1989) Risk Perception Scale, Janicak's (1996) Accident Locus of Control Scale, Rooney and Osipow's (1992) Self-efficacy Measure, and Zohar's (1980) Safety Climate Measure. Participant prior exposure to incidents as well as experience in the construction industry was also included. These measures were used to determine if differences in risk perception, locus of control, experience, acculturation, incident exposure, education, self-efficacy, and safety climate had an influence on the ability to make safe risk judgments. Information on topics construction laborers would like included in safety training as well as the preferred method of training was obtained through the use of focus groups. Eleven participants from the experimental group were recruited for the focus groups; 5 European Americans and 6 Hispanics. One focus group was conducted for each ethnic group. Six hypotheses were tested in this study: (1) there would be no difference in the risk judgments of European-American and Hispanic construction workers when given a choice of language, (2) more experienced construction workers would have more difficulty making safe judgments, (3) construction workers who have had more experience with safety related critical incidents in the workplace would have more difficulty making safe judgments, (4) construction workers who have lower levels of risk perception would have more difficulty making safe judgments, (5) construction workers who have an internal locus of control would have more difficulty making safe judgments than those who have an external locus of control, and (6) high acculturation participants would score higher on the narrative simulations than low acculturation participants following the video intervention. The first and fourth hypotheses were supported by the research. There were no significant differences found between the risk judgments of European-American and Hispanic construction workers, and risk perception was positively correlated to risk judgments. The remaining hypotheses were not supported by the research. The major findings of the research are (1) there were no differences in the risk judgments of European-American and Hispanic construction laborers, (2) risk perception and safety climate were significant predictors of construction laborer risk judgments, and (3) the risk judgments of participants were significantly higher for individuals viewing a People-based Safety intervention. There are several advantages of having this information. First, the lack of differences between the two ethnic groups, demonstrates that both groups are able to make safe risk judgments when given the appropriate information in the correct form and language. Secondly, regression analysis using independent variables risk perception and safety climate, may be used to predict narrative simulation risk judgments. The positive relationship between risk perception and safety climate on safe risk judgments should encourage employers and trainers to increase employees' awareness of hazards on the job and increase employees' perception of the company safety climate. Hazards should be identified in addition to their consequences. Trainers should aim to increase workers' perception of risk by relying on past negative outcomes that have a personal nature even if they are infrequent events. Third, experience was positively correlated to participants' confidence in their risk judgments on the narrative simulations. Trainers should not exclude the more experienced employees during training. Continuous training will allow more experienced employees to re-familiarize themselves with old hazards and become aware of new hazards. It is just as important for more experienced employees to be updated on risks because they are more confident in how they react to hazardous situations. It is in the best interest of the company for the confident employees to be confident in safe risk judgments. / Master of Science

The relationship between the psychobiological model of personality types (psychoticism, extraversion, and neuroticism) devised by Eysenck & Eysenck (1985) and Internet use and usage motives was examined. A sample of 210 undergraduate students were asked to report on their motives for using the Internet and how often they engaged in a variety of Internet and web-based activities. The findings demonstrate distinctive patterns of Internet use and usage motives for those of different personality types. Specifically, those scoring high in neuroticism reported using the Internet to feel a sense of "belonging" and to be informed. Extraverts rejected the communal aspects of the Internet, and made more instrumental and goal-oriented use of Internet services. Finally, those scoring high in psychoticism demonstrated an interest in more deviant, defiant, and sophisticated Internet applications. The role of personality in audience segmentation research is discussed along with implications of the findings in usability and interface design. Suggestions for future research are included. / Master of Arts

Salient features of a task play an important role in how people create task representations which then influence strategy selection for accomplishing the task. We examined two theories, Represent-Construct-Choose-Learn and Rational Metareasoning, both of which incorporate task features into their models of strategy selection but differ in feature set modification. We used the Building Sticks Task (BST) in which it has been shown that people are sensitive to a salient feature in the BST to test the predictions of both theories. The results showed that neither theory aligned closely with empirical data. Additionally, we investigated participants’ strategy preferences in BST and explored the potential influence of recent strategy use. Our findings revealed a preference for the undershoot strategy and a recency effect favoring the overshoot strategy. These findings highlight the complex nature of strategy selection and emphasize the significance of considering how task features, strategy preferences, and recency effects interact.

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<p>With the advent of the Internet, the digital market saw growth in online businesses, and now, it is impossible to imagine a world without the Internet. The prevalence of online services increased the internet user base, and employing different UX designs attracted more customers. With increased competition, profits, and growth in mind, businesses started using various dark design pattern strategies to seek data, profits, and attention. Dark patterns are user interface design techniques that manipulate user behavior in deceptive ways, often leading to unintended outcomes. As the use of these patterns continues to grow, it is crucial to understand how users respond to them based on their Individual differences. Earlier research revealed how effective these dark pattern strategies are, how prevalent they are, and how users perceive and feel about them. However, there needs to be more research on how users respond to these dark pattern strategies based on individual differences. The research aims to understand what individual differences predict their responses to different types of dark patterns. </p> <p>The study recruited participants through Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk), a widely used online marketplace for paid tasks. The survey consisted of several questionnaires, including demographic information, individual differences (such as the Big Five personality traits, impulsivity, and internet addiction), and vignettes containing dark patterns. </p> <p>Data was collected from 259 participants and imported into SPSS for analysis. The correlational analysis identified statistically significant variables related to dark pattern strategies. The results indicated that extroversion and agreeableness were significant predictors of dark pattern compliance. Specifically, individuals who scored higher in extroversion and lower in agreeableness were more likely to comply with the dark patterns presented in the vignettes. These findings have important implications for designers, policymakers, and consumers. Designers should consider individual differences when designing user interfaces to avoid using manipulative techniques that could lead to unintended outcomes. Policymakers should consider regulating the use of dark patterns to protect consumers from potentially harmful practices. Consumers should be aware of the dark patterns and how they may affect their behavior, making informed decisions when interacting with online platforms. </p> <p>The results of this study also contribute to the growing body of literature on individual differences and their relationship to user behavior. Previous studies revealed that personality traits, cognitive styles, and other individual differences can influence how users interact with technology. This study expands on this research by explicitly investigating the role of Big Five personality traits, impulsivity, and internet addiction in predicting user responses to dark patterns. In conclusion, this research paper contributes to understanding how individual differences can predict user responses to dark patterns. The study highlights the importance of considering individual differences when designing user interfaces to avoid using manipulative techniques. </p>