The term 'club drug' can be loosely defined as any substance used to enhance social settings. Such drugs are commonly found at raves or similar all-night dance parties and include methamphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB), ketamine (KET), and flunitrazepam (FLU). These drugs have potentially dangerous side effects including hallucinations, paranoia, amnesia and hyperthermia. In addition, GHB, KET and FLU are considered predatory drugs due to their roles in drug-facilitated sexual assault. Forensic and regulatory agencies routinely have the need for determination and accurate quantification of these drugs in biological fluids, especially in cases of mortality or criminal investigations. This review presents the chromatographic and spectroscopic methods published for such analyses over the last decade, including sample preparation techniques and validation data.

Le gliome est le type le plus agressif et mortel de tumeur cérébrale. Ces tumeurs se caractérisent par la présence conjointe de phénotypes solides (de bas grade, moins invasif, hautement vascularisé) et diffus (haut grade, très envahissant et diffus) des glioblastomes multiformes. Les collagènes sont des composants majeurs de la MEC des cellules tumorales des gliomes, et sont également présents dans la membrane basale des vaisseaux sanguins, mais avec une composition différente entre vasculatures saine et tumorale. L'abondance et la typologie des collagènes dans la MEC des cellules tumorales et la vasculature représentent donc un marqueur potentiel de diagnostic pour la gradation des tumeurs gliales. Nous avons développé la spectro-imagerie infrarouge à transformée de Fourier pour déterminer les modifications morphologiques et moléculaires apparaissant dans les formes solides et diffuses de gliomes, ainsi que dans les vasculatures saine et tumorale. Nous avons d'abord mis en évidence les vasculatures saine et tumorale en utilisant des nanoparticules injectées dans le système sanguin. Ensuite, nous avons appliqué des méthodes de reconstruction spectrale pour distinguer les tissus sains vs. ceux des formes solide et diffuse de tumeurs sur la base de leurs contenus en collagène de la MEC. Enfin, nous avons déterminé les changements de types du collagène au cours de la progression tumorale, validant ainsi la notion que l’analyse de ces contenus est potentiellement un marqueur diagnostic pour la gradation des gliomes. / The glioma is the most aggressive and lethal type of brain tumor. Such tumor is characterized both by solid (low grade, less invasive, highly vascularized) and diffuse (high grade, very invasive and diffuse) phenotypes in high-grades. Collagens are major components of ECM in glioma tumor cells, and are also present in basement membrane of blood vessels in vasculature, but with different composition between healthy and tumor capillaries. The abundance and typology of collagens in tumor cell ECM and vasculature is thus a potential diagnostic marker for grading glioma tumors. We developed Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectro-imaging as a functional technique to determine the morphological and molecular changes occurring in solid and diffuse form of tumor tissues as well as in healthy and tumor vasculatures. We first highlighted healthy and tumor vasculatures using nanoparticles injected in blood system. Then, we applied curve-fitting methods to distinguish between healthy tissue vs. solid and diffuse tumor tissues on the basis of the collagen contents found in ECM. Finally, we determined collagen typology changes during tumor progression, thus validating that collagen contents analysis is potentially a diagnostic marker for glioma grading.

A Agência Nacional de Vigilância Sanitária (ANVISA) não exige a realização de ensaios de bioequivalência utilizando métodos enantiosseletivos de quantificação de fármacos para o registro de medicamentos genéricos ou similares contendo fármacos racêmicos. Porém, existe a possibilidade das diferenças de concentrações plasmáticas dos enantiômeros entre o medicamento referência e os genéricos e/ou similares comercializados no Brasil serem maiores que as estabelecidas pelos limites de bioequivalência. Esse estudo teve a finalidade de investigar a influência da velocidade de liberação do fármaco metoprolol, a partir da forma farmacêutica, sobre o processo de absorção do fármaco total e de seus enantiômeros por meio da avaliação das concentrações plasmáticas de metoprolol total, (S)-metoprolol e (R)-metoprolol, e da relação entre as concentrações dos enantiômeros (S/R) após a administração oral de medicamentos contendo mistura racêmica deste fármaco. Para isso, foi realizado ensaio de biodisponibilidade in vivo, em um grupo de 20 voluntários saudáveis, de acordo com procedimentos éticos estabelecidos internacionalmente. Foram empregados três esquemas de administração do metoprolol, com a finalidade de simular diferentes velocidades de liberação do fármaco a partir da forma farmacêutica, na Fase 1 foi administrado uma dose única de 100 mg de metoprolol em solução, na Fase 2 e Fase 3 essa mesma dose foi particionada em duas e cinco administrações, respectivamente, com intervalo de 30 minutos entre elas. Foram coletadas amostras de sangue, e estas foram analisadas utilizando método convencional e método quiral para quantificação do metoprolol total e seus enantiômeros, respectivamente, utilizando cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência, com detector de fluorescência. Os parâmetros farmacocinéticos de ASC0-t, Cmáx e Tmáx foram utilizados para comparação entre as três velocidades de liberação do fármaco a partir da forma farmacêutica. A análise farmacocinética para o fámaco (R,S) metoprolol e seus enantiômeros e a comparação entre seus parâmetros farmacocinéticos obtidos após administração oral do metoprolol, indicam uma cinética enantioseletiva para o metoprolol, que pode ter ocorrido devido a uma biotransformação pré-sistêmica dose-dependente, ou a uma inibição do metabolismo do (S)-metoprolol pela forma (R)-metoprolol. / ANVISA, brazilian regulatory agency for drug products, does not require the use of enantioselective bioanalytical methods in bioequivalence assays of generic and similar drug products containing racemic drugs. Therefore, it is possible that two formulations are bioequivalent based on plasmatic concentration of total drug, but are not bioequivalent on the basis of the comparison of the data of the stereoisomers. The objective of this study was to investigate the influence of the release rate of metoprolol from the dosage form on its absorption process and on its enantiomers\' absorption process by measuring plasmatic concentrations of total metoprolol, (S)-metoprolol and (R)-metoprolol after oral administration of drug products containing racemic metoprolol. An in vivo bioavailability study was conducted in a group of 20 healthy volunteers, according to national and international guidelines for biomedical research, in which the administration rate of metoprolol was varied. In Phase 1 a single dose of 100 mg metoprolol was administered in solution, in Phase 2 and Phase 3 the same dose was partitioned into two and five administrations, respectively, with an interval of 30 minutes between them. Blood samples were collected, and these were analyzed using the conventional method and chiral method for quantification of (R,S)-metoprolol and for its enantiomers, using high performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. The pharmacokinetic parameters AUC0-t, Cmax and Tmax were used for comparisons between three different drug release rates. Pharmacokinetic analysis for (R, S) metoprolol and its enantiomers and comparison of their pharmacokinetic parameters obtained after oral administration of metoprolol, to indicate an enantioselective kinetic, which may be due to a biotransformation pre-systemic dose dependent or the inhibition of metabolism of the (S)-form for metoprolol (R)-metoprolol.

A Agência Nacional de Vigilância Sanitária (ANVISA) não exige a realização de ensaios de bioequivalência utilizando métodos enantiosseletivos de quantificação de fármacos para o registro de medicamentos genéricos ou similares contendo fármacos racêmicos. Porém, existe a possibilidade das diferenças de concentrações plasmáticas dos enantiômeros entre o medicamento referência e os genéricos e/ou similares comercializados no Brasil serem maiores que as estabelecidas pelos limites de bioequivalência. Esse estudo teve a finalidade de investigar a influência da velocidade de liberação do fármaco metoprolol, a partir da forma farmacêutica, sobre o processo de absorção do fármaco total e de seus enantiômeros por meio da avaliação das concentrações plasmáticas de metoprolol total, (S)-metoprolol e (R)-metoprolol, e da relação entre as concentrações dos enantiômeros (S/R) após a administração oral de medicamentos contendo mistura racêmica deste fármaco. Para isso, foi realizado ensaio de biodisponibilidade in vivo, em um grupo de 20 voluntários saudáveis, de acordo com procedimentos éticos estabelecidos internacionalmente. Foram empregados três esquemas de administração do metoprolol, com a finalidade de simular diferentes velocidades de liberação do fármaco a partir da forma farmacêutica, na Fase 1 foi administrado uma dose única de 100 mg de metoprolol em solução, na Fase 2 e Fase 3 essa mesma dose foi particionada em duas e cinco administrações, respectivamente, com intervalo de 30 minutos entre elas. Foram coletadas amostras de sangue, e estas foram analisadas utilizando método convencional e método quiral para quantificação do metoprolol total e seus enantiômeros, respectivamente, utilizando cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência, com detector de fluorescência. Os parâmetros farmacocinéticos de ASC0-t, Cmáx e Tmáx foram utilizados para comparação entre as três velocidades de liberação do fármaco a partir da forma farmacêutica. A análise farmacocinética para o fámaco (R,S) metoprolol e seus enantiômeros e a comparação entre seus parâmetros farmacocinéticos obtidos após administração oral do metoprolol, indicam uma cinética enantioseletiva para o metoprolol, que pode ter ocorrido devido a uma biotransformação pré-sistêmica dose-dependente, ou a uma inibição do metabolismo do (S)-metoprolol pela forma (R)-metoprolol. / ANVISA, brazilian regulatory agency for drug products, does not require the use of enantioselective bioanalytical methods in bioequivalence assays of generic and similar drug products containing racemic drugs. Therefore, it is possible that two formulations are bioequivalent based on plasmatic concentration of total drug, but are not bioequivalent on the basis of the comparison of the data of the stereoisomers. The objective of this study was to investigate the influence of the release rate of metoprolol from the dosage form on its absorption process and on its enantiomers\' absorption process by measuring plasmatic concentrations of total metoprolol, (S)-metoprolol and (R)-metoprolol after oral administration of drug products containing racemic metoprolol. An in vivo bioavailability study was conducted in a group of 20 healthy volunteers, according to national and international guidelines for biomedical research, in which the administration rate of metoprolol was varied. In Phase 1 a single dose of 100 mg metoprolol was administered in solution, in Phase 2 and Phase 3 the same dose was partitioned into two and five administrations, respectively, with an interval of 30 minutes between them. Blood samples were collected, and these were analyzed using the conventional method and chiral method for quantification of (R,S)-metoprolol and for its enantiomers, using high performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. The pharmacokinetic parameters AUC0-t, Cmax and Tmax were used for comparisons between three different drug release rates. Pharmacokinetic analysis for (R, S) metoprolol and its enantiomers and comparison of their pharmacokinetic parameters obtained after oral administration of metoprolol, to indicate an enantioselective kinetic, which may be due to a biotransformation pre-systemic dose dependent or the inhibition of metabolism of the (S)-form for metoprolol (R)-metoprolol.

Food contact materials are materials that are intended to come into contact with food, and we are exposed to different types of chemicals that exist in the packages on a daily basis. In this study, a battery of effect‑based in vitro cellular bioassays was used to evaluate the presence of bioactive compounds in commonly used food contact materials made of paper and cardboard, retrieved from the Swedish market. Sample extracts were tested at concentrations 0.3, 1, 3 and 10 mg food contact material/mL cell culture medium. The use of effect-based bioassays allowed for screening of multiple health-relevant endpoints in a non-targeted approach. Hence, taking unknown substances and mixtures into consideration when addressing potential toxicity of the materials. In essence, detection of bioactivity could be considered as moderate to high in assays of positive effects. Antiandrogenic and antiestrogenic effects were found in 72% of the samples, followed by 47% bioactivity in the Nrf2 assay. No androgenic effect was detected. Usage of effect-based bioassays allows for high sensitivity and low detection limits, and these can be used as a first approach to evaluate package materials to ensure the safety of consumers. / Livsmedelsförpackningar är material som är avsedda att komma i kontakt med livsmedel. Vi exponeras för olika typer av kemikalier som existerar i dessa förpackningar varje dag. I denna studie användes ett batteri av effektbaserade in vitro bioanalytiska metoder för att undersöka förekomst av bioaktiva ämnen i vanligen använda livsmedelsförpackningar tillverkade av papper och kartong, insamlade från den svenska marknaden. Provextrakten testades i koncentrationerna 0.3, 1, 3 och 10 mg livsmedelsförpackning/mL cellmedium. Att använda effektbaserade bioanalyser möjliggör undersökning av flertalet hälsorelevanta effekter genom en icke-riktad strategi. På så sätt tas okända substanser och komplexa blandningar i beaktande. Andelen bioaktiva prover kan anses måttlig till hög för positiva analyser. Antiandrogena och antiöstrogena effekter detekterades i 72% av proverna, följt av 47% bioaktivitet i Nrf2 analysen. Ingen agonistisk androgen effekt observerades. Att använda effektbaserade bioanalyser möjliggör hög sensitivitet och detektion vid låga koncentrationer, därför kan dessa användas som ett första steg för att evaluera förpackningsmaterial för att säkra konsumenternas hälsa.

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Tesis por compendio / [ES] La medicina actual se dirige hacia un enfoque más personalizado basándose en el diagnóstico molecular del paciente a través del estudio de biomarcadores específicos. Aplicando este principio molecular, el diagnóstico, pronóstico y selección de la terapia se apoyan en la identificación de variaciones específicas del genoma humano, como variaciones de un único nucleótido (SNV). Para detectar estos biomarcadores se dispone de una amplia oferta de tecnologías. Sin embargo, muchos de los métodos en uso presentan limitaciones como un elevado coste, complejidad, tiempos de análisis largos o requieren de personal y equipamiento especializado, lo que imposibilita su incorporación masiva en la mayoría de los sistemas sanitarios. Por tanto, existe la necesidad de investigar y desarrollar soluciones analíticas que aporten información sobre las variantes genéticas y que se puedan implementar en diferentes escenarios del ámbito de la salud con prestaciones competitivas y económicamente viables. El objetivo principal de esta tesis ha sido desarrollar estrategias innovadoras para resolver el reto de la detección múltiple de variantes genéticas que se encuentran en forma minoritaria en muestras biológicas de pacientes, cubriendo las demandas asociadas al entorno clínico. Las tareas de investigación se centraron en la combinación de reacciones de discriminación alélica con amplificación selectiva de DNA y el desarrollo de sistemas ópticos de detección versátiles. Con el fin de atender el amplio abanico de necesidades, en el primer capítulo, se presentan resultados que mejoran las prestaciones analíticas de la reacción en cadena de la polimerasa (PCR) mediante la incorporación de una etapa al termociclado y de un agente bloqueante amplificando selectivamente las variantes minoritarias que fueron monitorizadas mediante fluorescencia a tiempo real. En el segundo capítulo, se logró la discriminación alélica combinando la ligación de oligonucleótidos con la amplificación de la recombinasa polimerasa (RPA), que al operar a temperatura constante permitió una detección tipo point-of-care (POC). La identificación de SNV se llevó a cabo mediante hibridación en formato micromatriz, utilizando la tecnología Blu-Ray como plataforma de ensayo y detección. En el tercer capítulo, se integró la RPA con la reacción de hibridación alelo especifica en cadena (AS-HCR), en formato array para genotipar SNV a partir de DNA genómico en un chip. La lectura de los resultados se realizó mediante un smartphone. En el último capítulo, se presenta la síntesis de un nuevo reactivo bioluminiscente que se aplicó a la monitorización de biomarcadores de DNA a tiempo real y final de la RPA basada en la transferencia de energía de resonancia de bioluminiscencia (BRET), eliminando la necesidad de una fuente de excitación. Todas las estrategias permitieron un reconocimiento especifico de la variante de interés, incluso en muestras que contenían tan solo 20 copias de DNA genómico diana. Se consiguieron resultados sensibles (límite de detección 0.5% variante/total), reproducibles (desviación estándar relativa < 19%), de manera sencilla (3 etapas o menos), rápida (tiempos cortos de 30-200 min) y permitiendo el análisis simultaneo de varios genes. Como prueba de concepto, estas estrategias se aplicaron a la detección e identificación en muestras clínicas de biomarcadores asociados a cáncer colorrectal y enfermedades cardiológicas. Los resultados se validaron por comparación con los métodos de referencia NGS y PCR, comprobándose que se mejoraban los requerimientos técnicos y la relación coste-eficacia. En conclusión, las investigaciones llevadas a cabo posibilitaron desarrollar herramientas de genotipado con propiedades analíticas competitivas y versátiles, aplicables a diferentes escenarios sanitarios, desde hospitales a entornos con pocos recursos. Estos resultados son prometedores al dar respuesta a la demanda de tecnologías alternativas para el diagnóstico molecular personalizado. / [CA] La medicina actual es dirigeix cap a un enfocament més personalitzat basant-se en el diagnòstic molecular del pacient a través de l'estudi de biomarcadors específics. Aplicant aquest principi molecular, el diagnòstic, pronòstic i selecció de la teràpia es recolzen en la identificació de variacions específiques del genoma humà, com variacions d'un únic nucleòtid (SNV). Per a detectar aquests biomarcadors, es disposa d'una àmplia oferta de tecnologies. No obstant això, molts dels mètodes en ús presenten limitacions com un elevat cost, complexitat, temps d'anàlisis llargues o requereixen de personal i equipament especialitzat, la qual cosa impossibilita la seua incorporació massiva en la majoria dels sistemes sanitaris. Per tant, existeix la necessitat d'investigar i desenvolupar solucions analítiques que aporten informació sobre les variants genètiques i que es puguen implementar en diferents escenaris de l'àmbit de la salut amb prestacions competitives i econòmicament viables. L'objectiu principal d'aquesta tesi ha sigut desenvolupar estratègies innovadores per a resoldre el repte de la detecció múltiple de variants genètiques que es troben en forma minoritària en mostres biològiques de pacients, cobrint les demandes associades a l'entorn clínic. Les tasques d'investigació es van centrar en la combinació de reaccions de discriminació al·lèlica amb amplificació selectiva de DNA i al desenvolupament de sistemes òptics de detecció versàtils. Amb la finalitat d'atendre l'ampli ventall de necessitats, en el primer capítol, es presenten resultats que milloren les prestacions analítiques de la reacció en cadena de la polimerasa (PCR) mitjançant la incorporació d'una etapa al termociclat i d'un agent bloquejant amplificant selectivament les variants minoritàries que van ser monitoritzades mitjançant fluorescència a temps real. En el segon capítol, es va aconseguir la discriminació al·lèlica combinant el lligament d'oligonucleòtids amb l'amplificació de la recombinasa polimerasa (RPA), que en operar a temperatura constant va permetre una detecció tipus point-of-care (POC). La identificació de SNV es va dur a terme mitjançant hibridació en format micromatriu, utilitzant la tecnologia Blu-Ray com a plataforma d'assaig i detecció. En el tercer capítol, es va integrar la RPA amb la reacció d'hibridació al·lel específica en cadena (AS-HCR), en format matriu per a genotipar SNV a partir de DNA genòmic en un xip. La lectura dels resultats es va realitzar mitjançant un telèfon intel·ligent. En l'últim capítol, es presenta la síntesi d'un nou reactiu bioluminescent que es va aplicar al monitoratge de biomarcadors de DNA a temps real i final de la RPA basada en la transferència d'energia de ressonància de bioluminescència (BRET), eliminant la necessitat d'una font d'excitació. Totes les estratègies van permetre un reconeixement específic de la variant d'interès, fins i tot en mostres que només contenien 20 còpies de DNA genòmic diana. Es van aconseguir resultats sensibles (límit de detecció 0.5% variant/total), reproduïbles (desviació estàndard relativa < 19%), de manera senzilla (3 etapes o menys), ràpida (temps curts de 30-200 min) i permetent l'anàlisi simultània de diversos gens. Com a prova de concepte, aquestes estratègies es van aplicar a la detecció i identificació en mostres clíniques de biomarcadors associats a càncer colorectal i a malalties cardiològiques. Els resultats es van validar per comparació amb els mètodes de referència NGS i PCR, comprovant-se que es milloraven els requeriments tècnics i la relació cost-eficàcia. En conclusió, les investigacions dutes a terme van possibilitar desenvolupar eines de genotipat amb propietats analítiques competitives i versàtils, aplicables a diferents escenaris sanitaris, des d'hospitals a entorns amb pocs recursos. Aquests resultats són prometedors en donar resposta a la demanda de tecnologies alternatives per al diagnòstic molecular personalitzat. / [EN] Current medicine is moving towards a more personalized approach based on the patients' molecular diagnosis through the study of specific biomarkers. Diagnosis, prognosis and therapy selection, applying this molecular principle, rely on identifying specific variations in the human genome, such as single nucleotide variations (SNV). A wide range of technologies is available to detect these biomarkers. However, many of the employed methods have limitations such as high cost, complexity, long analysis times, or requiring specialized personnel and equipment, making their massive incorporation in most healthcare systems impossible. Therefore, there is a need to research and develop analytical solutions that provide information on genetic variants that can be implemented in different health scenarios with competitive and economically feasible performances. The main objective of this thesis has been to develop innovative strategies to solve the challenge of multiple detection of genetic variants that are found in a minority amount in patient samples, covering the demands associated with the clinical setting. Research tasks focused on the combination of allelic discrimination reactions with selective DNA amplification and the development of versatile optical detection systems. In order to meet the wide range of needs, in the first chapter, the analytical performances of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) were improved by incorporating a thermocycling step and a blocking agent to amplify selectively minority variants that were monitored by real-time fluorescence. In the second chapter, allelic discrimination was achieved by combining oligonucleotide ligation with recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA), which operates at a constant temperature, allowing point-of-care (POC) detection. SNV identification was carried out by hybridization in microarray format, using Blu-Ray technology as the assay platform and detector. RPA was integrated with allele-specific hybridization chain reaction (AS-HCR), in an array format to genotype SNV from genomic DNA on a chip in the third chapter. The reading of the results was performed using a smartphone. In the last chapter, a new bioluminescent reagent was synthesized. It was applied to real-time and endpoint DNA biomarker monitoring based on bioluminescence resonance energy transfer (BRET), eliminating the need for an excitation source. All the strategies allowed specific recognition of the target variant, even in samples containing as few as 20 copies of target genomic DNA. Sensitive (limit of detection 0.5% variant/total), reproducible (relative standard deviation < 19%), simple (3 steps or less), fast (short times of 30-200 min) results were achieved, allowing simultaneous analysis of several genes. As proof of concept, these strategies were applied to detect and identify biomarkers associated with colorectal cancer and cardiological diseases in clinical samples. The results were validated by comparison with reference methods such as NGS and PCR, proving that the technical requirements and cost-effectiveness were improved. In conclusion, the developed research made it possible to develop genotyping tools with competitive analytical properties and versatile, applicable to different healthcare scenarios, from hospitals to limited-resource environments. These results are promising since they respond to the demand for alternative technologies for personalized molecular diagnostics. / The authors acknowledge the financial support received from the Generalitat Valenciana PROMETEO/2020/094, GRISOLIA/2014/024 PhD Grant and GVA-FPI-2017 PhD grant, the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness MINECO projects CTQ2016-75749-R and PID2019-110713RB-I00 and European Regional Development Fund (ERDF). / Lázaro Zaragozá, A. (2022). Study of Strategies for Genetic Variant Discrimination and Detection by Optosensing [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/185216 / Compendio

Les maladies pulmonaires tel que l’amiantose ou le mésotheliome proviennent de l‘interaction entre les fibres d’amiantes et les cellules humaines. L’hétérogénéité morphologique et chimique des fibres nous oblige à disposer de moyens analytique capable d’analyser l’interaction organique – inorganique. Nos travaux ont pour but de développer une méthodologie d'imagerie infrarouge couplé avec le rayonnement synchrotron. Grâce à cette technique, nous pourrons analyser les effets des fibres d'amiantes sur une cellule unique. La méthodologie a été testée sur des cellules cultivées directement sur des substrats transparents à l'infrarouge. Les expériences réalisées ont été étendu à l'imagerie Raman in vitro de cellule individuelle vivante en interaction avec différents types de fibres afin de mieux évaluer l'effet pathogène de celle ci sur les cellules pulmonaire. / Lung disease as asbestosis and mesothelioma come from the interaction between asbestos fibers and human cells. The morphological and chemical heterogeneity of these fibers leads us to use analytical techniques capable of analyzing the organic/inorganic interaction. Our work aims the development of FTIR method couple with the synchrotron radiation. Thanks to that technique, we could analyse the effects of the asbestos fibers on a lung human cell. These technique has been developped on cultured cells directly on IR transparent substrates. The experimentation have been developped to in vitro RAMAN imaging of individual living cell in interaction with different types of fibers. The goal was a better understanding of the pathological effect of the asbestos fibers on the human lung cells.