The use of copyrighted works is an essential tool for carrying out teaching activities. It is relevant for both teachers, who very often use them to support their instructional tasks, and students, who also make use of them to illustrate their learning activities. The mandatory authorisation of the copyrightholder may represent, in some cases, an exorbitant and unjustified demand (e. g. when the use is really inoffensive or responds to the exercise of fundamental rights and freedoms) or even an unenforceable requirement (either because there is no effective and sufficiently developed market for educational licences -notably on line-, or because is extremely difficult to control the actual utilisation of the work). The recognition of the private and public interests in the use of copyrighted works for educational purposes justifies the certain limitations to the copyrightholders' exclusive rights. This publication analyses the scope of the limitation of "illustration for teachin" incorporated in the Spanish Copyright Law by the Law 23/2006 and other complementary exceptions that may be invoked in educational activities. It reviews the legal framework established in the international treaties and in the Information Society Directive and also considers the laws other EU countries and beyond (notably US and Australia) some of them specifically targeting online education. The PhD thesis supports a flexible interpretation of the requirements foreseen in the Spanish Copyright law and de lege ferenda presents a series of policy options that could help to better conciliate public and private interests.

La present Tesi Doctoral analitza la construcció europea al llarg de la història enfoncant-se en els aspectes jurídics, històrics, polítics i socioeconòmics. L’objectiu principal ha estat entaular els nexes causals entre l’evolució sociopolítica del continent europeu i el naixement, a la vegada que desenvolupament, del procés d’integració europea des de diferents vessants doctrinals. El primer capítol es dedica a l’evolució històrica de la formació d’Europa a l’Edat Mitjana. El capítol dos continua el marc conceptual i històric des de l’evolució de les diferents estructures socials i polítiques a Europa occidental durant l’Edat Mitjana, la creació dels Estats moderns, l’expansió d’Europa pel món i el descobriment d’Amèrica, les revolucions del segle XIX, els nacionalismes i les dos Guerres Mundials, així com les conseqüències per al declivi d’Europa. El tercer capítol aborda tant les consecutives crisis internes del projecte europeu com els impulsos d’aquest. El quart capítol es centra en l’anàlisi del Tractat de Lisboa, el seu gènesi des del fracàs del projecte de Constitució Europea i els seus elements principals. Finalment, el cinquè i últim capítol es dedica a l’anàlisi de determinats àmbits específics d’actuació de les relacions exteriors de la Unió Europea. / La presente Tesis Doctoral analiza la construcción europea a lo largo de la historia enfocándose en los aspectos jurídicos, históricos, políticos y socioeconómicos. El objetivo principal ha sido establecer los nexos causales entre la evolución sociopolítica del continente europeo y el nacimiento, así como el desarrollo, del proceso de integración europea desde diferentes vertientes doctrinales. El primer capítulo se dedica a la evolución histórica de la formación de Europa en la Edad Media. El segundo capítulo continúa el marco conceptual e histórico desde la evoluación de las diferentes estructuras sociales y las políticas en Europa occidental durante la Edad Media, la creación de los Estados modernos, la expansión de Europa por el mundo y el descubrimiento de América, las revoluciones del siglo XIX, los nacionalismos y las dos Guerras Mundiales, así como sus consecuencias en el declive de Europa. El tercer capítulo aborda tanto las consecutivas crisis internas del proyecto europeo como las distintas iniciativas para su impulso. El cuarto capítulo se centra en el análisis del Tratado de Lisboa, desde su génesis incluyendo el fracaso del proyecto de Constitución Europea y sus elementos principales. Finalmente, el quinto capítulo se dedica al examen de determinados ámbitos específicos de actuación de las relaciones exteriores de la UE. / This Doctoral Thesis analysis the European construction throught history pointing out legal, historical, political and socioeconomics aspects. The main objective has been to establish links between the sociopolitical evolution of the European continent and the origins, and development of the European integration process. The fist chapter sets the historical evolution of Europe in the Middle Ages. The second chapter also examines the historical framework from the Middle Ages, the establishment of modern States, the expansion of Europe, the discovery of America, the Revolutions of the XIX century, the nationalism and the two World Wars. The third chapter approaches the consecutives internal crisis of the European project as well as the different initiatives to strenghten it. The fourth chapter focusses on the analysis of the Lisbon Treaty from its origins including the non nata Constitution to its main elements. Finally, the fifth chapter examines specific fields regarding the external relations of the EU.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2015. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Anthocyanins are naturally occurring pigments responsible for the colour of many natural products, including grapes and wine. These pigments are important to the food industry and have been recognised for their nutritional value since they play an important role in the reduced risk of various chronic diseases in humans. Anthocyanins also play an important role in the aesthetic perception and quality of red wine. However, due to the large structural diversity of grape-derived anthocyanins and the many derivatives formed from these during wine ageing, the accurate analysis of wine pigments is extremely challenging. Reversed-phase liquid chromatography (RP-LC) is mostly used for anthocyanin analysis, although the technique often provides insufficient resolving power for complex mixtures of anthocyanins. In addition, the lack of commercially available standards and identical mass spectral characteristics hampers identification of these compounds. The coupling of multiple orthogonal separation systems in comprehensive 2-dimensional liquid chromatography (LC×LC) offers a more powerful approach for the separation of complex mixtures. The current work therefore focussed on exploring the potential of LC×LC for the improved analysis of anthocyanins and derived pigments in natural products and wine. The first part of this work focussed on developing a hydrophilic interaction chromatography (HILIC) method as an alternative to RP-LC for the anthocyanin analysis. Following extensive optimisation, the method proved suitable for the analysis of a diverse range of anthocyanins in natural products. Significantly, it also showed alternative selectivity compared to RP-LC. The optimised HILIC method was then used in combination with RP-LC to develop an off-line LC×LC approach for anthocyanins. For this purpose, half-minute fractions of the HILIC effluent were collected and reinjected onto a RP-LC column. The off-line HILIC×RP-LC method demonstrated exceptionally high resolving power, as measured in terms of the practical peak capacity, with many compounds separated in two dimensions that co-eluted in 1-dimensional HPLC. Interestingly, group-type separation was also observed based on the degree and/or nature of glycosylation and acylation of anthocyanins. In the final part of the work, a systematic approach was used for the development and optimisation of and on-line HILIC×RP-LC method by using a 10-port switching valve to automatically transfer fractions between the two columns. This method was then coupled to high resolution mass spectrometry (MS) to allow the detailed investigation of anthocyanins and derived products in wine. Ninety four pigments were identified in one- and six-year old Pinotage wines based on HILIC×RPLC separation in combination with accurate mass MS data and fragmentation information. Significant differences in especially the content of derived pigments were observed between the wines. In summary, the methods developed in this work provide the means to improve anthocyanin analysis, and therefore also show promise for the detailed investigation of these important compounds and their alteration in natural products and their derived commodities. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Antosianiene is natuurlike pigmente wat verantwoordelik is vir die kleur van baie natuurlike produkte, insluitende dié van druiwe en wyn. Hierdie pigmente is belangrik vir die voedsel industrie en word gereken vir hul voedingswaarde aangesien hulle 'n belangrike rol speel in die verlaagde risiko van verskeie chroniese siektes onder die mens. Antosianiene speel ook 'n belangrike rol in die estetiese persepsie en kwaliteit van rooiwyn. Desnieteenstaande, as gevolg van die groot strukturele diversiteit van druifgeproduseerde antosianiene en die vele chemiese afgeleides wat uit hulle gevorm kan word tydens wyn bereiding en veroudering, is die akkurate analise van natuurlike wyn-pigmente uiters uitdagend. Omgekeerde-fase vloeistofchromatografie (RP-LC) word meestal gebruik vir die analise van antosianiene. Dié tegniek bied egter dikwels onvoldoende skeidingsvermoë vir komplekse mengsels van antosianiene en verwante molekules. Verder belemmer die onbeskikbaarheid van kommersiële standaarde en identiese massa spektrale eienskappe die identifikasie van hierdie verbindings. Die kombinasie van verskillende ortogonale skeidings meganismes in omvattende 2- dimensionele vloeistofchromatografie (LC×LC) bied egter 'n baie kragtiger benadering vir die skeiding van komplekse mengsels. Die huidige werk fokus dus op die ontginning van die potensiaal van LC×LC vir die verbeterde ontleding van antosianiene en verwante afgeleide pigmente in natuurlike produkte en wyn. Die eerste deel van hierdie werk het gefokus op die ontwikkeling van 'n hidrofiliese interaksie chromatografiese (HILIC) metode as ʼn alternatief vir RP-LC analise van antosianiene. Na uitgebreide optimisering, is gevind dat die metode geskik is vir die ontleding van 'n verskeidenheid van antosianiene in natuurlike produkte. Van groot belang is dat dit ook alternatiewe selektiwiteit in vergelyking met RP-LC demonstreer. Hierdie geoptimiseerde HILIC metode word dan voorts gebruik in kombinasie met RP-LC vir die ontwikkeling van ʼn af-lyn LC×LC benadering vir die analise van antosianiene. Hiervoor is half-minuut fraksies van die HILIC uitvloei opgevang en her-ingespuit op 'n RP-LC kolom. Dié af-lyn HILIC×RP-LC metode toon buitengewoon hoë skeidingsvermoë, gemeet in terme van die bereikbare praktiese piek kapasiteit, met baie verbindings wat geskei is in die twee dimensies wat saam elueer in 1-dimensionele HPLC. Interessant genoeg is groep-tipe skeiding ook waargeneem gebaseer op die graad en / of aard van glukosilasie en asilering van die antosianiene. In die laaste deel van die werk, is 'n sistematiese benadering gevolg vir die ontwikkeling en optimisering van ʼn aan-lyn HILIC×RP-LC deur gebruik te maak van 'n 10-poort oorskakelingsklep wat fraksies outomaties oordra tussen die twee kolomme. Die bogenoemde metode is ook verder gekoppel aan hoë resolusie massaspektrometrie (HR-MS) om ʼn gedetailleerde ondersoek van antosianiene en hulle afgeleide verbindings in wyn moontlik te maak. Vier en negentig pigmente is in een- en ses jaar oue Pinotage wyne geïdentifiseer gebaseer op HILIC×RP-LC skeiding in kombinasie met akkurate massa MS data en fragmentasie inligting. Beduidende verskille in veral die inhoud van antosianien-afgeleide pigmente is tussen die wyne waargeneem. Ter samevatting, die metodes ontwikkel in hierdie werk baan die weg om antosianien ontleding te verbeter en stel gevolglik die moontlikheid van selfs meer gedetailleerde studies van hierdie belangrike verbindings in natuurlike produkte in die vooruitsig.

BACKGROUND: Descending kerbs during locomotion involves the regulation of appropriate foot placement before the kerb-edge and foot clearance over it. It also involves the modulation of gait output to ensure the body-mass is safely and smoothly lowered to the new level. Previous research has shown that vision is used in such adaptive gait tasks for feedforward planning, with vision from the lower visual field (lvf) used for online updating. The present study determined when lvf information is used to control/update locomotion when stepping from a kerb. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: 12 young adults stepped down a kerb during ongoing gait. Force sensitive resistors (attached to participants' feet) interfaced with an high-speed PDLC 'smart glass' sheet, allowed the lvf to be unpredictably occluded at either heel-contact of the penultimate or final step before the kerb-edge up to contact with the lower level. Analysis focussed on determining changes in foot placement distance before the kerb-edge, clearance over it, and in kinematic measures of the step down. Lvf occlusion from the instant of final step contact had no significant effect on any dependant variable (p>0.09). Occlusion of the lvf from the instant of penultimate step contact had a significant effect on foot clearance and on several kinematic measures, with findings consistent with participants becoming uncertain regarding relative horizontal location of the kerb-edge. CONCLUSION/SIGNIFICANCE: These findings suggest concurrent feedback of the lower limb, kerb-edge, and/or floor area immediately in front/below the kerb is not used when stepping from a kerb during ongoing gait. Instead heel-clearance and pre-landing-kinematic parameters are determined/planned using lvf information acquired in the penultimate step during the approach to the kerb-edge, with information related to foot placement before the kerb-edge being the most salient.

No description available.

The purpose of this experiment was to evaluate the effects of alternative contingencies on instruction following by an ABA design. Three college students consistently pressed keys 1-5-3 and 4-8-6 in the presence of the written instruction "Press 153" or "Press 486." During condition A, the contingencies for following and not following the instruction were the same: CON FR5 FR5 and CON FR20 FR20. During condition B, the contingencies for following and not following the instruction were different: CON FR20 FR5. For one participant, the schedule of reinforcement was then changed to FR30. The results showed that subjects followed instructions when the schedule of reinforcement was the same for instruction following and not following.

Osmotic stress is a potent regulator of the normal function of cells that are exposed to osmotically active environments under physiologic or pathologic conditions. The ability of cells to alter gene expression and metabolic activity in response to changes in the osmotic environment provides an additional regulatory mechanism for a diverse array of tissues and organs in the human body. In addition to the activation of various osmotically- or volume-activated ion channels, osmotic stress may also act on the genome via a direct biophysical pathway. Changes in extracellular osmolality alter cell volume, and therefore, the concentration of intracellular macromolecules. In turn, intracellular macromolecule concentration is a key physical parameter affecting the spatial organization and pressurization of the nucleus. Hyper-osmotic stress shrinks the nucleus and causes it to assume a convoluted shape, whereas hypo-osmotic stress swells the nucleus to a size that is limited by stretch of the nuclear lamina and induces a smooth, round shape of the nucleus. These behaviors are consistent with a model of the nucleus as a charged core/shell structure pressurized by uneven partition of macromolecules between the nucleoplasm and the cytoplasm. These osmotically-induced alterations in the internal structure and arrangement of chromatin, as well as potential changes in the nuclear membrane and pores are hypothesized to influence gene transcription and/or nucleocytoplasmic transport. A further understanding of the biophysical and biochemical mechanisms involved in these processes would have important ramifications for a range of fields including differentiation, migration, mechanotransduction, DNA repair, and tumorigenesis. / Dissertation

B-lymphocytes have traditionally been thought to contribute to immunity and autoimmune disease through terminal differentiation into plasma cells that secrete antibody. However, studies in mice and recent clinical studies have demonstrated that genetically altered B-cell function and B-cell-targeted therapies can significantly affect autoimmune diseases that were predominantly thought to be T-cell-mediated. B-cell depletion in mouse models of disease has also led to the identification of alternative B-cell effector functions that regulate normal immune responses and autoimmune disease. This review highlights multiple B-cell effector mechanisms, including the promotion of cellular immunity, the negative regulation of immune responses, and the production of pathogenic antibodies. / Dissertation

Archaeological bones are usually dated by radiocarbon measurement of extracted collagen. However, low collagen content, contamination from the burial environment or museum conservation work have previously lead to inaccurate results, especially for old bones, compromising the ability to reconstruct reliable past chronologies. It is reported, for example, that up to 70% of Palaeolithic radiocarbon dates on bones are likely to be underestimates of the real age, blurring the picture of modern human dispersals and Neanderthal extinction. In this thesis, a method for isolating and radiocarbon dating the collagen amino acid hydroxyproline is described. Hydroxyproline consists of about 10% of bone collagen but is not found in significant amounts elsewhere in nature. The hydroxyproline dating method uses a mixed-mode (i.e. ion-exchange combined with hydrophobic chemistry), semi preparative HPLC methodology. The amino acids do not require derivatisation, and no organic solvents are used, thereby avoiding addition of carbon. The hypothesis of this thesis is that the hydroxyproline can be used as a bone specific biomarker, improving dating accuracy and making it possible to obtain radiocarbon determinations where previously it has been impossible. It was calculated that on average 3.3±1.4μg of contaminant carbon are added to each sample in the process of isolating the hydroxyproline, a low level suitable for 14C dating. It was investigated whether a deliberately contaminated bone and 'naturally' contaminated archaeological bones, yielding erroneous dates when dated using the normal pretreatment method, could be dated accurately using this method. In addition, a hydroxyproline date was obtained for a bone with too little surviving collagen to be dateable by the bulk collagen method. Finally, using the hydroxyproline dating method, the earliest direct ages for the presence of anatomically modern humans on the Russian Plain were obtained. The method proved to be a powerful tool that can help resolve longstanding archaeological questions.

The purpose of this essay is to critically examine the current legal status of animals in the United States and offer possible alternatives to the current legal rights for animals. This essay examines the failures of the legal system in protecting animals that have abilities very similar to our own. With an examination of these types of animals, this essay will explain why some animals merit the status of legal personhood to protect them from being carelessly used by others. Ultimately, this essay is an attempt to open the field of legal protection for many animals starting with a few through legal personhood.