Based on the unique clinical correlates of two subtypes of childhood aggression (reactive and proactive), this study examined possible differential treatment effects for children with varying degrees of reactive or proactive aggression receiving one of two types of psychosocial treatment aimed at addressing these unique characteristics. Forty-seven affectively dysregulated children with oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) participated in the study. Results suggest a main effect for type of treatment, modest support for the moderating role of proactive aggression, and no support for reactive aggression as a moderator of treatment outcome. Implications for assessment and treatment of aggression are discussed. / Master of Science

Previous research regarding the biosocial approach to aggression suggests that the interaction between biological and environmental variables contribute to aggression. However, this particular relationship has not yet been fully explored in children. Therefore, this study examined the moderating influence of psychophysiological activity, particularly resting heart rate (HR) and HR variability (HRV), on the relationship between child abuse potential (CAP) and child reactive and proactive aggression. Thirty-six children, between the ages of 7 and 13, and their parents were recruited from the local schools and community in Southwestern Virginia. Parents completed self-report measures for child abuse potential (CAP) and the type of aggression displayed by their children (i.e., reactive or proactive). Children were assessed for resting HR and HRV for four minutes during a rest period. CAP was related to increased proactive (i.e., instrumental) and reactive (i.e., hostile) aggression in children with low levels of resting HR. CAP was also related to increased proactive aggression in children with high resting HRV. Significant main effects were not found for CAP or psychophysiological functioning, indicating the importance of examining the interaction of these variables. Taken together, the findings suggest the existence of an interaction of these two biological and social variables above and beyond their individual influences as risk factors. The role of cardiovascular underarousal in relation to proactive and reactive aggression in abused children is discussed. Overall, this study supports the notion of a biosocial interaction for aggression in children, and thus has implications for future research and treatment. / Master of Science

This study explores the relationship between identity development variables on the one hand, and aggression and peer conflict on the other; Results showed a direct relationship between internalizing symptoms and relational aggression, existential anxiety and reactive aggression, and an inverse relationship between identity exploration and proactive aggression. While preliminary, these findings suggest some potentially fruitful avenues for using the promotion of positive identity development to aid bullying prevention efforts.

The current study used secondary analysis of existing data to examine associations between bullying experiences, parental partner violence, and partner violence in young adulthood. We hypothesized that bullying in adolescence would be associated with witnessing parental IPV in adolescence and IPV in young adulthood. We believed that deficits in social information processing, particularly hostile attribution biases, would be associated with adolescent bullying. Lastly, we believed that decentering would act as a moderator, affecting the relationship between adolescent bullying and IPV in adulthood. We used correlational and moderation analyses to examine these hypotheses and found that relational bullying victimization was associated with witnessing parental IPV, and the frequency of bullying perpetration was associated with IPV perpetration in adulthood. We found that some aspects of bullying victimization were negatively associated with being unassertive, bullying perpetration was associated with hostile attribution biases, and the relationship between bullying and IPV was significant only at certain levels of decentering maturity.

Doctor of Philosophy / Family Studies and Human Services / Sandra M. Stith / Little information is available on the use of relational aggression in adult romantic relationships. In a sample of 325 married couples (650 spouses) we assessed the use of relational aggression within couples married an average of approximately 18 years to learn more about relational aggression within this population. To understand a potential motivating factor for the use of relational aggression, marital power was also examined. Finally, to learn whether or not relationship satisfaction mediates the relationship between marital power and relational aggression, relationship satisfaction was measured and was found to be a significant mediating variable. Using the actor/partner interdependence model, we found that those who were dissatisfied in their relationships, regardless of perceived marital power, were more likely to use relational aggression. Additionally, those who were satisfied in their marriage were less likely to use relational aggression. Wives participated in more relational aggression than husbands and husbands perceived themselves as having more power and were more satisfied in the marriage. Implications and suggestions for clinicians are offered.

Doctor of Philosophy / School of Family Studies and Human Services / Amber Vennum / The literature suggests that aggressive behaviors occur in response to provocation (i.e., reactive aggression) or to achieve a goal (i.e., instrumental aggression). Relational aggression –when an individual harms another’s interpersonal relationships – has been studied from the reactive and instrumental framework in peer-directed contexts, usually with children. However, relational aggression in romantic relationships is yet to be studied from this framework. This dissertation includes a series of studies investigating whether two specific relationally aggressive behaviors found in romantic relationships (i.e., social sabotage and love withdrawal) are 1) motivated by instrumental and reactive aggression, 2) associated with differential characteristics, and 3) predictive of negative outcomes. The Romantic Relational Aggression Motivation (RRAM) scale, which included social sabotage and love withdrawal items with both instrumental and reactive motivations, was created to explore the above research questions. During Study 1a, an exploratory factor analysis using a sample of 170 emerging adults tested the factor structure of the RRAM. This resulted in love withdrawal, but not social sabotage, factoring into instrumental and reactive subscales. Using the same sample at a later wave, Study 1b refined the RRAM from Study 1a; the findings confirmed the results of Study 1a. In Study 2, using a sample of 118 emerging adults, the factor structure found in Study 1b was corroborated using a confirmatory factor analysis. Study 2 found that social sabotage was more closely related to instrumental than reactive love withdrawal. Reactive and instrumental love withdrawal were clearly differentiated based on their associations with constructs that were emotionally driven (e.g. neuroticism and hostile attribution bias) but not by their associations with constructs that dealt with power (e.g. self-relationship power and trait dominance). None of the romantic relational aggression scales were predictive of the negative outcomes in the study, possibly due to the small sample size (85 emerging adults) in the longitudinal portion of Study 2. As instrumental and reactive love withdrawal were associated with different constructs and combining the two together may cause substantial differences to be lost, the RRAM may be a useful tool for researchers of romantic relational aggression.

The purpose of the project was to explore sex and grade differences observed in RISA (a term used to refer collectively to relational, indirect, and social aggression). Three theories used to explain sex and grade differences, namely, gender socialization theory (Bjorkqvist, 1994;Lagerspetz & Bjorkqvist, 1994; Lagerspetz, Bjorkqvist, & Peltonen, 1988), target-value theory(Bjorkqvist, Lagerspetz, & Kaukiainen, 1992; Lagerspetz et al, 1988; Crick & Grotpeter, 1995),and symbolic capital theory (Campbell, 1993; Cashdan, 1997; Eckert, 1990; Horney 1934a, 1934b, 1934c) were reviewed, expanded upon, and tested. Theories were tested using questionnaires; however, a small subset of participants also completed individual interviews to add greater depth to information provided by the quantitative data. A second purpose of the project was to use a measure that represents the diversity of RISA items found in other measures currently used by researchers since research has suggested inconsistencies in findings may be related to item composition. Participants were 521 (301 girls and 220 boys) in grades six (n = 224), seven (n = 224) and eight (n = 73) from various Canadian schools (average age of 12.2 years) who completed the questionnaires. From this sample, 28 students completed individual interviews. Results indicated that boys and girls did not differ in regard to self-reported use of RISA; however, interviews and peer nominations indicated that girls have the reputation for engaging in RISA more frequently than boys. Post-hoc analyses indicated that the appearance of sex differences in RISA may be influenced by item choice as some items on the self-report measure were more highly reported by boys, while others were more likely to be reported by girls. There was not a great deal of support for any of the theories tested. Results indicated that the pattern of connections for predictors of RISA frequently did not differ by sex. Factors like perceived risk of or discomfort with using aggression, affective reactions to relationship threats, and care about ones own or a peers performance in a number of life domains were connected to RISA for both sexes.

This study examined the independent and interactive effects of acute alcohol consumption, perceived alcohol consumption of a female confederate, and distal alcohol expectancies of intoxicated women, on sexual aggression. Participants were a diverse community sample (54% African-American) of heterosexual males (N = 156) between 21 and 35 years of age who were recruited to complete the study with a male friend and an ostensibly single, heterosexual female who reported a strong dislike of sexual content in the media. Sexual aggression was measured utilizing a well-validated laboratory paradigm in which participants viewed a sexually explicit or non-sexually explicit video clip as part of a contrived media rating task and made individual choices of which video clip to show the female confederate. Sexual aggression was operationalized as selection of the sexually explicit video, as opposed to the non-sexually explicit video. Results demonstrated that acute alcohol consumption, perceived female alcohol consumption, and distal alcohol expectancies of women’s vulnerability to sexual coercion and sexual drive while intoxicated, were not significantly related to sexual aggression utilizing the current paradigm. Post-hoc analyses revealed that the primary predictor variables were significantly related to participants’ perceived distress of a female confederate following an act of sexual aggression. Discussion focused on understanding what factors may have been relevant in understanding why the primary predictor variables were not significantly related to sexual aggression utilizing the current paradigm. Finally, clinical implications were explored in addressing a lack of perceived distress in potential female victims by individuals who endorsed higher levels of distal alcohol expectancies of intoxicated women’s vulnerability to sexual coercion and what potential interventions be utilized clinically.

The purpose of the project was to explore sex and grade differences observed in RISA (a term used to refer collectively to relational, indirect, and social aggression). Three theories used to explain sex and grade differences, namely, gender socialization theory (Bjorkqvist, 1994;Lagerspetz & Bjorkqvist, 1994; Lagerspetz, Bjorkqvist, & Peltonen, 1988), target-value theory(Bjorkqvist, Lagerspetz, & Kaukiainen, 1992; Lagerspetz et al, 1988; Crick & Grotpeter, 1995),and symbolic capital theory (Campbell, 1993; Cashdan, 1997; Eckert, 1990; Horney 1934a, 1934b, 1934c) were reviewed, expanded upon, and tested. Theories were tested using questionnaires; however, a small subset of participants also completed individual interviews to add greater depth to information provided by the quantitative data. A second purpose of the project was to use a measure that represents the diversity of RISA items found in other measures currently used by researchers since research has suggested inconsistencies in findings may be related to item composition. Participants were 521 (301 girls and 220 boys) in grades six (n = 224), seven (n = 224) and eight (n = 73) from various Canadian schools (average age of 12.2 years) who completed the questionnaires. From this sample, 28 students completed individual interviews. Results indicated that boys and girls did not differ in regard to self-reported use of RISA; however, interviews and peer nominations indicated that girls have the reputation for engaging in RISA more frequently than boys. Post-hoc analyses indicated that the appearance of sex differences in RISA may be influenced by item choice as some items on the self-report measure were more highly reported by boys, while others were more likely to be reported by girls. There was not a great deal of support for any of the theories tested. Results indicated that the pattern of connections for predictors of RISA frequently did not differ by sex. Factors like perceived risk of or discomfort with using aggression, affective reactions to relationship threats, and care about ones own or a peers performance in a number of life domains were connected to RISA for both sexes.

The past decade has seen a rise in research on social, relational and indirect aggression, with a burgeoning focus only recently on the psychosocial consequences of being a target of such behaviours. It is widely understood that experiencing social aggression can trigger internal distress for children and adolescents, but far less is known about the nature and extent of longer-term psychosocial consequences. In this qualitative study, I aim to begin filling this gap by exploring how young women make meaning from experiences of social aggression in adolescence, with a particular focus on how they understand the impact of these experiences on their sense of self and relation to others in adulthood. Seven women between the ages of 25 and 32 were interviewed using a modified collaborative narrative method (Arvay, 2003). Interviews were transcribed and interpreted in narrative form to preserve the unique voice and experience of each participant. Five themes emerged through a process of categorical-content analysis as described by Lieblich, Tuval-Mashiach & Zilber (1998). Themes address participants' meaning-making following experiences of social aggression in terms of the (1) struggle to understand, (2) loss of trust in relationship, (3) changes in sense of self, (4) psychosocial responses, and (5) process of reframing of the experience in adulthood. The themes are discussed within the context of relevant qualitative and quantitative literature on the psychosocial consequence of social, relational and indirect aggression in adolescence and adulthood. Implications for school and community counselling practice and suggestions for future research are examined.