A significant problem with exploring for electrically conductive mineral deposits with airborne electromagnetic (AEM) methods is that many of the most valuable sulphide deposits are too conductive to be detected with conventional systems. High-grade sulphide deposits with bulk electrical conductivities on the order of 100,000 S/m can appear as “perfect conductors” to most EM systems because the decay of secondary fields (the “time constant” of the deposit) generated in the target by the system transmitter takes much longer than the short measuring time of EM systems. Their EM response is essentially undetectable with off-time measurements. One solution is to make measurements during the transmitter on-time when the secondary field of the target produced by magnetic flux exclusion is large. The difficulty is that the secondary field must be measured in the presence of a primary field which is orders of magnitude larger. The goal of this thesis is to advance the methodology of making AEM measurements during transmitter on-time by analysing experimental data from three different AEM systems. The first system analysed is a very large separation, two helicopter system where geometry is measured using GPS sensors. In order to calculate the primary field at the receiver with sufficient accuracy, the very large (nominally 400 m) separation requires geometry to be known to better than 1 m. Using the measured geometry to estimate and remove the primary field, I show that a very conductive target can be detected at depths of 200m using the total secondary field. I then used fluxgate magnetometers to correct for receiver rotation which allowed the component of the secondary field to be determined. The second system I examined was a large separation fixed-wing AEM system. Using a towed receiver bird with a smaller (˜ 135m) separation, the geometry must be known much more accurately. In the absence of direct measurement of this geometry, I used a least-squares prediction approach using measurements of aircraft manoeuvres which allowed primary field contamination to be estimated. Subtracting this estimate from the recorded signal increased the maximum time constant observed in a field survey for conductive targets by a factor of seven. Finally, a study of a nominally rigid helicopter EM system employing a bucking coil to cancel primary field showed that system geometry (specifically, the position of the receiver coil relative to the transmitter and bucking coils) must be known to better than 0.01 mm to detect deep targets. Again, direct measurements of system geometry were not available. A least-squares prediction filter using helicopter manoeuvre and system pitch and roll measurements was applied, but was not able to estimate primary field well enough to provide an accurate secondary on-time response. Direct measurements of relative motion of the system components might solve this problem.

The orbit of Phobos exhibits an along-track acceleration, which suggests energy dissipation in the Mars-Phobos system. We hypothesize that the inferred dissipation occurs within Mars. We explore the response of a layered, incompressible Maxwell viscoelastic Mars to tidal forcing by Phobos using normal mode relaxation theory. Our results elucidate the general behavior of a tidally forced viscoelastic body, and have implications for the viscoelastic structure of Mars. We find the real and imaginary part of the degree-two tidal Love number for Mars to be 0.168 and -9.32x10^−4 respectively. Models which satisfy these and other constraints have either: a fluid core with radius 2040 km and density 5410 kg/m^3; or an elastic inner core with radius 1200 km and density 6700 kg/m^3, along with a fluid outer core with thickness 850 km and density 4850 kg/m^3. These findings support previous hypotheses that Mars has at least a fluid outer core.

The orbit of Phobos exhibits an along-track acceleration, which suggests energy dissipation in the Mars-Phobos system. We hypothesize that the inferred dissipation occurs within Mars. We explore the response of a layered, incompressible Maxwell viscoelastic Mars to tidal forcing by Phobos using normal mode relaxation theory. Our results elucidate the general behavior of a tidally forced viscoelastic body, and have implications for the viscoelastic structure of Mars. We find the real and imaginary part of the degree-two tidal Love number for Mars to be 0.168 and -9.32x10^−4 respectively. Models which satisfy these and other constraints have either: a fluid core with radius 2040 km and density 5410 kg/m^3; or an elastic inner core with radius 1200 km and density 6700 kg/m^3, along with a fluid outer core with thickness 850 km and density 4850 kg/m^3. These findings support previous hypotheses that Mars has at least a fluid outer core.

A significant problem with exploring for electrically conductive mineral deposits with airborne electromagnetic (AEM) methods is that many of the most valuable sulphide deposits are too conductive to be detected with conventional systems. High-grade sulphide deposits with bulk electrical conductivities on the order of 100,000 S/m can appear as “perfect conductors” to most EM systems because the decay of secondary fields (the “time constant” of the deposit) generated in the target by the system transmitter takes much longer than the short measuring time of EM systems. Their EM response is essentially undetectable with off-time measurements. One solution is to make measurements during the transmitter on-time when the secondary field of the target produced by magnetic flux exclusion is large. The difficulty is that the secondary field must be measured in the presence of a primary field which is orders of magnitude larger. The goal of this thesis is to advance the methodology of making AEM measurements during transmitter on-time by analysing experimental data from three different AEM systems. The first system analysed is a very large separation, two helicopter system where geometry is measured using GPS sensors. In order to calculate the primary field at the receiver with sufficient accuracy, the very large (nominally 400 m) separation requires geometry to be known to better than 1 m. Using the measured geometry to estimate and remove the primary field, I show that a very conductive target can be detected at depths of 200m using the total secondary field. I then used fluxgate magnetometers to correct for receiver rotation which allowed the component of the secondary field to be determined. The second system I examined was a large separation fixed-wing AEM system. Using a towed receiver bird with a smaller (˜ 135m) separation, the geometry must be known much more accurately. In the absence of direct measurement of this geometry, I used a least-squares prediction approach using measurements of aircraft manoeuvres which allowed primary field contamination to be estimated. Subtracting this estimate from the recorded signal increased the maximum time constant observed in a field survey for conductive targets by a factor of seven. Finally, a study of a nominally rigid helicopter EM system employing a bucking coil to cancel primary field showed that system geometry (specifically, the position of the receiver coil relative to the transmitter and bucking coils) must be known to better than 0.01 mm to detect deep targets. Again, direct measurements of system geometry were not available. A least-squares prediction filter using helicopter manoeuvre and system pitch and roll measurements was applied, but was not able to estimate primary field well enough to provide an accurate secondary on-time response. Direct measurements of relative motion of the system components might solve this problem.

This thesis investigates the timing and mechanisms involved in the formation of evaporite piercement structures on Ellef Ringnes Island, Canadian Arctic Archipelago. The study includes the interpretation of industry seismic reflection and borehole data to characterize the geometry of the domes, 1D backstripping of wells to investigate the role of tectonic influences on diapirism, and analogue modelling to better understand the mechanisms that drive diapirs with dense anhydrite caps. I propose that basement structures played a significant role in the formation of evaporite domes by triggering and directing salt movement. The domes developed during the Mesozoic by passive growth driven by the differential loading of salt on adjacent fault blocks, which led to their present day asymmetric geometries. Diapir growth rates in the Mesozoic were closely linked to the rate of sedimentation, which was greatly influenced by the amount of accommodation space provided by tectonic subsidence of the basin.

This thesis investigates the timing and mechanisms involved in the formation of evaporite piercement structures on Ellef Ringnes Island, Canadian Arctic Archipelago. The study includes the interpretation of industry seismic reflection and borehole data to characterize the geometry of the domes, 1D backstripping of wells to investigate the role of tectonic influences on diapirism, and analogue modelling to better understand the mechanisms that drive diapirs with dense anhydrite caps. I propose that basement structures played a significant role in the formation of evaporite domes by triggering and directing salt movement. The domes developed during the Mesozoic by passive growth driven by the differential loading of salt on adjacent fault blocks, which led to their present day asymmetric geometries. Diapir growth rates in the Mesozoic were closely linked to the rate of sedimentation, which was greatly influenced by the amount of accommodation space provided by tectonic subsidence of the basin.

Master of Science / Department of Geology / Matthew Totten / Due to their high resolution and established success rates, 3D seismic surveys have become one of the most important tools in many hydrocarbon exploration programs. Basic interpretation of seismic reflectors alone, however, may result in inaccurate predictions of subsurface geology. Historically, seismic attributes have played a particularly important role in the characterization of the lithological and petrophysical properties of hydrocarbon reservoirs in Kansas channel fill lithofacies. Integration of an analysis based on post-stack seismic attributes may drastically reduce the chances of drilling in unsuitable locations. Previous theses have focused on establishing a suitable 3D seismic attribute analysis workflow for use in the determination of hydrocarbon production potential in areas of Ness County, Kansas, USA (Abbas, 2009; Phillip, 2011). By applying a similar workflow in the analysis of additional 3D seismic and well log data obtained from a nearby area in Ness County, and comparing those results to existing borehole and production data, this study seeks to test the hypothesis that seismic attribute analysis is a crucial component in the delineation of heterogeneous reservoir stratigraphy in Kansas lithologies. Time-structure maps, in addition to time slices of several 3D seismic attributes including amplitude attenuation, acoustic impedance, and event continuity all seem to indicate that five previously drilled dry wells within the study area were outside the boundary of a meandering, Cherokee sandstone body of potential reservoir quality. Additionally, comparisons of the results of this research to previous studies conducted in Ness County have provided an opportunity to assess, and potentially contribute to, paleodepositional interpretations made through the utilization of a similar workflow (Raef et al., in press). The results of this study seem to support a broadly NE-SW trending meandering channel system, which is in agreement with the interpretations of Raef et al., and the findings of Ramaker (2009).

The goal of this research was to devise a new analytical technique, using Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS), to measure Platinum Group Element (PGE) concentrations to the sup-ppb levels in natural, insulating, samples. The challenges were threefold. First, a method of sputtering an insulating sample to successfully produce a stable beam of anions needed to be devised. Second, a suitable standard of known PGE concentrations had to be found and third, spectral analysis of the beam had to verify any claims of PGE abundance. The first challenge was met by employing a modified high intensity negative ion source flooded with neutral caesium that successfully sputtered insulators to produce a beam of negative ions. The second challenge, that of finding a suitable standard, was fraught with difficulties, as no synthesized standards available were found to be appropriate for this work. As a result, direction is provided for future production of standards by ion implantation. The third challenge, successful spectral analysis, was accomplished using a newly designed gas ionization detector which allowed for resolution of the interfering molecular fragment from the PGE ions. Coupled with the use of the SRIM computer programme, positive identification of all peaks in the spectra of the analyzed samples was accomplished. The success of the first and third challenges lead to the qualitative analyses of geological samples for sub-ppb levels of PGE by AMS. Quantitative analyses await only for the appropriate standards and with those will come a whole new range of research possibilities for measuring sub-ppb levels of PGE in insulating samples by AMS.

Master of Science / Department of Geology / Abdelmoneam Raef / This research presents a workflow integrating several post-stack seismic attributes to assist in understanding the development history of Weirman Field, Ness County, KS. This study contributes to shaping future drilling plans by establishing a workflow combining analysis of seismic attributes and well cuttings to locate a channel fill zone of better reservoir quality, and to highlight reservoir boundaries due to compartmentalization. In this study, I have successfully outlined a fluvial channel, which is expected to be significantly different in terms of petrophysical properties. The Pennsylvanian aged Cherokee sandstones that potentially comprise channel fill lithofacies, in this study, have been linked to oil production throughout the state of Kansas. It is important to understand channel sandstones when evaluating drilling prospects, because of their potential as an oil reservoir and unpredictable shapes and locations. Since their introduction in the 1970s, seismic attributes have become an essential part of lithological and petrophysical characterization of hydrocarbon reservoirs. Seismic attributes can correlate to and help reveal certain subsurface characteristics and specific geobodies that cannot be distinguished otherwise. Extracting and analyzing acoustic impedance, root-mean-square amplitude and amplitude attenuation, guided by a time window focused on the top of the Mississippian formation, resulted in an understanding of the key seismic channel-facies framework and helped to explain some of the disappointing drilling results at Weirman Field. To form a better understanding of these seismic attributes, this study combined certain attributes and overlayed them in partially transparent states in order to summarize and better visualize the resulting data. A preliminary study of spectral decomposition, which was introduced in the late 1990s, was preformed, and a more in-depth study of this multi-resolution attribute is recommended for future study of this particular field. This study also recommends integrating the revealed compartmentalization boundary and the seismic channel-facies framework in future drilling plans of Weirman Field.

Master of Science / Department of Geology / Abdelmoneam Raef / In this study, laboratory measurements of ultrasonic frequency P- and S-wave velocities were collected and analyzed from two sets of cores. The first set is from a near surface study in southeastern Kansas, and the second set was from the deep subsurface and obtained from a newly drilled well (Wellington KGS 1-32) in Sumner County, KS. Ultrasonic velocities acquired from the second set of cores were then compared with in situ sonic and dipole sonic frequencies of P- and S-waves from well logs. Well log data, core data, and ultrasonic velocity measurements were integrated for Gassmann fluid replacement modeling. The understanding of the velocity and elastic moduli variations at ultrasonic frequencies, along with the comparison of well log velocities can potentially provide improved understanding to establish a beneficial calibration relationship. It could also allow for estimation of shear wave velocities for wells lacking dipole sonic log data. The ability to utilize cost-effective ultrasonic measurements of velocities and elastic moduli in the laboratory, for fluid replacement modeling (Gassmann) in CO[subscript]2-sequestration, as well as, enhanced oil recovery (EOR) projects, would be a significant advance. Potential alternative use of ultrasonic velocities for determining the effects of fluid replacement using Gassmann modeling, when log data is lacking, is an ongoing effort. In this study, the fluid replacement modeling is executed based on sonic and dipole sonic P- and S-wave velocities and compared with results from theoretical modeling. The significance of this work lies in the potential of establishing a calibration relationship for the representative lithofacies of the carbon geosequestration target zone of the Wellington KGS 1-32 well in Sumner County, and enabling the use of ultrasonic measurements of body wave velocities and elastic moduli in Gassmann fluid replacement modeling. This work, when integrated with continuing effort in mapping lithofacies of the Arbuckle and Mississippian groups, would potentially be of great importance to fluid flow simulation efforts and time-lapse seismic monitoring. This study will utilize Gassmann modeling and a range of measurements and data, which include: well logs and ultrasonic laboratory P- and S-wave measurements and core analysis data.