Interventions created to alter challenging behaviour should be preceded by a thorough investigation into the purpose of the behaviour. Functional Assessment is a framework created to investigate the purpose, or function, of behaviour viewed as a problem. Careful analysis of the behaviour through interviews, questionnaires, rating scales and direct observations, are combined to form hypotheses pertaining to the reasons why a particular behaviour might be of value to the individual.

Doctor of Education / Department of Educational Leadership / Sarah Jane Fishback / The purpose of this study was to investigate the association between cognitive complexity and creativity. This research was conducted with a sample (n = 126) of field grade officers at the Joint and Combined Warfighter School in Norfolk, VA, as part of class 08-02 (N = 250), in early 2008. The Department of Defense (DoD) challenges its officers to operate in ambiguity, solve complex problems and be creative. The DoD needs its officers to apply a creative imagination, supported by skill, knowledge, and experience, to design integrated operational plans that employ military forces. In order to do this, the DoD teaches its officers cognitive thinking skills and creativity at the same time. Are cognitive thinking skills and creativity correlated? Two valid and reliable tests were used to test for cognitive complexity and creativity: the Learning Environments Preference (LEP) and the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT), both the Figural-A and the Verbal-A forms. A small positive but statistically insignificant (τ = .083) correlation was found between the measured levels of cognitive development (LEP CCI) and the measured level of creativity (TTCT). In addition, this research analyzed the effect that branch of service, combat experience, gender, age, and education level had on creativity and cognitive complexity. There was a strong positive correlation between cognitive complexity and level of civilian education level ([Tau] = .345, p < .001). There was a strong positive correlation between creativity and level of civilian education level ([Tau] = .341, p < .001). When LEP CCI scores (cognition) were correlated to TTCT creativity scores while controlling for combat experience there was a medium positive correlation (r = .285, p = .007). When combat experience was correlated to the LEP CCI scores (cognition) there was a medium positive correlation ([Tau] = .246, p = .002). There was a medium positive correlation between military rank and LEP CCI (cognition) scores ([Tau] = .228, p = .002). There was a small positive correlation between military rank and TTCT creativity scores ([Tau] = .15, p = .042). When gender was correlated to the TTCT scores (creativity), there was a statistically significant positive correlation for females ([Tau] = .151, p = .041). A small positive but statistically insignificant (r = .111) correlation was present between the level of creativity, the level of cognitive development, and age. There was a small positive but statistically insignificant (r = .109) correlation between the level of creativity, the level of cognitive development, and branch of service.

This study used pre-existing data to examine whether children with ADHD, with and without working memory (WM) deficits, differ in their academic achievement and clinical profiles. 73 children (26% female), aged 6-12 years, with a confirmed diagnosis of ADHD had completed standardized achievement tests of reading, mathematics, and written language. Six WM measures and three parent and teacher questionnaires probing behaviour and executive functioning were administered. Of the sample, only 26% met the criteria for a WM deficit. Children with WM impairments were found to perform significantly worse than those without WM impairment on all achievement clusters, with no clinical profile differences. Poor WM is not universal in ADHD, but its presence is associated with lower academic achievement scores. Clinicians and educators should consider that underlying impairments in WM may be the contributing factors to academic difficulties in children with ADHD. Interventions targeting WM skills need to be implemented.

This study examined written expression skills in children with attention problems with and without word reading difficulties. The sample consisted of 28 children with attention problems (AP) only, 18 children with coexisting attention and reading problems (ARP), and 34 children without attention or word reading difficulties (TYP). Curriculum-based measurement (CBM) indices of accuracy and fluency, plus teacher ratings of handwriting, spelling, and overall writing skills were used to assess children’s written expression skills. The analyses indicated that the AP and ARP groups received significantly lower scores on all measures of written expression than the TYP group. The ARP group scored significantly lower than the AP group on the teacher ratings of writing and spelling. These findings suggest that inattention is significantly related to written expression difficulties independent of word-reading skills.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of school policies aimed to reduce adolescent alcohol and marijuana use. More specifically, the study investigated whether more severe school policy measures are related to the increased or decreased instances of overall alcohol and marijuana use on and beyond school grounds among grade 10 and 12 students. I used data from the National Education Longitudinal Study (NELS). After controlling for a number of prior measures of environmental and demographic factors that are significant predictors of adolescent alcohol and marijuana use, the school policy measures showed no impact on either alcohol or marijuana use at any level of its consumption. This was true for both grade 10 and grade 12 students. The study’s findings suggest that instead of constructing punitive policy measure, policymakers should develop prevention and intervention programs that more specifically target the needs of adolescents, peers, parents, and teachers.

This paper critically reviewed the literature on the relationships between Pinyin and Chinese bilingual and monolingual children’s phonological awareness (PA) and identified areas of research worth of further investigation. As the Chinese Phonetic Alphabet providing pronunciation of the universal Chinese characters, Pinyin facilitates children’s early reading development. What research has found in English is that PA is a reliable indicator of later reading success and meta-linguistic training improves PA. In Chinese, a non-alphabetic language, there is also evidence that PA predicts reading in Chinese, which confirms the universality of PA’s role. However, research shows the uniqueness of each language: tonal awareness is stronger indicator in Chinese while phonemic awareness is stronger indicator in English. Moreover, Pinyin, the meta-linguistic training, has been found to improve PA in Chinese and reading in Chinese and possibly facilitate the cross-language transfer of PA from Chinese to English and vice versa.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of school policies aimed to reduce adolescent alcohol and marijuana use. More specifically, the study investigated whether more severe school policy measures are related to the increased or decreased instances of overall alcohol and marijuana use on and beyond school grounds among grade 10 and 12 students. I used data from the National Education Longitudinal Study (NELS). After controlling for a number of prior measures of environmental and demographic factors that are significant predictors of adolescent alcohol and marijuana use, the school policy measures showed no impact on either alcohol or marijuana use at any level of its consumption. This was true for both grade 10 and grade 12 students. The study’s findings suggest that instead of constructing punitive policy measure, policymakers should develop prevention and intervention programs that more specifically target the needs of adolescents, peers, parents, and teachers.

This paper critically reviewed the literature on the relationships between Pinyin and Chinese bilingual and monolingual children’s phonological awareness (PA) and identified areas of research worth of further investigation. As the Chinese Phonetic Alphabet providing pronunciation of the universal Chinese characters, Pinyin facilitates children’s early reading development. What research has found in English is that PA is a reliable indicator of later reading success and meta-linguistic training improves PA. In Chinese, a non-alphabetic language, there is also evidence that PA predicts reading in Chinese, which confirms the universality of PA’s role. However, research shows the uniqueness of each language: tonal awareness is stronger indicator in Chinese while phonemic awareness is stronger indicator in English. Moreover, Pinyin, the meta-linguistic training, has been found to improve PA in Chinese and reading in Chinese and possibly facilitate the cross-language transfer of PA from Chinese to English and vice versa.

This study used pre-existing data to examine whether children with ADHD, with and without working memory (WM) deficits, differ in their academic achievement and clinical profiles. 73 children (26% female), aged 6-12 years, with a confirmed diagnosis of ADHD had completed standardized achievement tests of reading, mathematics, and written language. Six WM measures and three parent and teacher questionnaires probing behaviour and executive functioning were administered. Of the sample, only 26% met the criteria for a WM deficit. Children with WM impairments were found to perform significantly worse than those without WM impairment on all achievement clusters, with no clinical profile differences. Poor WM is not universal in ADHD, but its presence is associated with lower academic achievement scores. Clinicians and educators should consider that underlying impairments in WM may be the contributing factors to academic difficulties in children with ADHD. Interventions targeting WM skills need to be implemented.

This study examined written expression skills in children with attention problems with and without word reading difficulties. The sample consisted of 28 children with attention problems (AP) only, 18 children with coexisting attention and reading problems (ARP), and 34 children without attention or word reading difficulties (TYP). Curriculum-based measurement (CBM) indices of accuracy and fluency, plus teacher ratings of handwriting, spelling, and overall writing skills were used to assess children’s written expression skills. The analyses indicated that the AP and ARP groups received significantly lower scores on all measures of written expression than the TYP group. The ARP group scored significantly lower than the AP group on the teacher ratings of writing and spelling. These findings suggest that inattention is significantly related to written expression difficulties independent of word-reading skills.