Working memory (WM) refers to the information processing system that is responsible for the maintenance plus manipulation of information. WM is necessary for the performance of complex tasks, such as reasoning and comprehension. Until relatively recently, WM capacity was thought to be a fixed trait of the individual. However, research findings on the effects of WM training programs have demonstrated otherwise. Therefore, this dissertation examined the impact of WM training in college students with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Learning Disabilities (LD), two neuro-developmental disorders in which WM is impaired. The main objectives of this dissertation were to investigate training gains on the WM training program itself, transfer effects, and 2-month maintenance effects. College students with ADHD/LD, all of whom were registered with student disability services, were randomized to either the WM training program or a wait-list control group. Those who received WM training showed significantly greater improvements in the criterion WM measures (WAIS-IV Digit Span, CANTAB Spatial Span) and self-reported fewer ADHD symptoms and daily cognitive failures, compared to the control group. Analysis of participants who completed the follow-up assessment indicated that the gains in WM were maintained for at least 2 months after training. The dissertation is presented in four chapters. The introduction provides a broad overview of the research on WM, ADHD/LD, and WM training. The second chapter expands upon the methods used in the current study. The third chapter consists of a manuscript that will be submitted for publication. The fourth and final chapter summarizes the findings of the current study and discusses its implications for future research and clinical practice.

This study provided information on the long term psychosexual and psychiatric outcomes of 139 boys with gender identity disorder (GID). Standardized assessment data in childhood (mean age, 7.49 years; range, 3–12 years) and at follow-up (mean age, 20.58 years; range, 13–39 years) were used to evaluate gender identity and sexual orientation outcome. At follow-up, 17 participants (12.2%) were judged to have persistent gender dysphoria. Regarding sexual orientation, 82 (63.6%) participants were classified as bisexual/ homosexual in fantasy and 51 (47.2%) participants were classified as bisexual/homosexual in behavior. The remaining participants were classified as either heterosexual or asexual. With gender identity and sexual orientation combined, the most common long-term outcome was desistence of GID with a bisexual/homosexual sexual orientation followed by desistence of GID with a heterosexual sexual orientation. The rates of persistent gender dysphoria and bisexual/homosexual sexual orientation were substantially higher than the base rates in the general male population. Childhood assessment data were used to identify within-group predictors of variation in gender identity and sexual orientation outcome. Social class and severity of cross-gender behavior in childhood were significant predictors of gender identity outcome. Severity of childhood cross-gender behavior was a significant predictor of sexual orientation at follow-up. Regarding psychiatric functioning, the heterosexual desisters reported significantly less behavioral and psychiatric difficulties compared to the bisexual/homosexual persisters and, to a lesser extent, the bisexual/ homosexual desisters. Clinical and theoretical implications of these follow-up data are discussed.

This dissertation examined language and literacy development in English-Hebrew emerging bilinguals. During their senior kindergarten year, one group of children participated in a bilingual English-Hebrew program (“early” group; n = 17) while another participated in an English-language program with minimal Hebrew instruction (“late” group; n = 19). Both groups were merged in Grade 1 and continued to receive a partial Hebrew immersion program. The first part of this dissertation explored longitudinally how an early partial Hebrew immersion program contributes to literacy (word reading, pseudoword reading, reading comprehension), language (vocabulary and morphological awareness (MA)), phonological awareness, and rapid automatized naming in English and Hebrew. Similar improvement from senior kindergarten to Grade 1 was noted for both groups across all measures, however the early group displayed significantly stronger Hebrew vocabulary skills. Literacy and language inter- and cross-linguistic correlation patterns were not significantly different between the two groups. The second part examined the relevance of the Simple View of Reading framework (SVR; Gough & Tunmer, 1986) in Grade 1 (N = 36). The contribution of word reading and language proficiency was examined within and between languages. Two aspects of MA (derivational awareness and inflectional awareness) were considered as additional components of oral language. Word reading, vocabulary and both MA measures were used as predictors. The SVR model significantly explained English reading comprehension based on a combination of word reading and derivational awareness (but not vocabulary), and Hebrew reading comprehension based on word reading and vocabulary. In English, derivational awareness contributed unique variance to reading comprehension above word reading although this was not the case in Hebrew. In addition, English word reading and inflectional awareness predicted Hebrew reading comprehension, thus supporting the SVR model cross-linguistically, although the reverse was not true. Overall, the children attending the Hebrew early immersion programming had an advantage for Hebrew vocabulary skills with no negative repercussions on their English language and literacy skills. The study supports the relevance of the SVR framework for young emerging bilinguals, and underscores the importance of considering aspects of MA as components of oral language proficiency that contribute to reading comprehension in these learners.

Working memory (WM) refers to the information processing system that is responsible for the maintenance plus manipulation of information. WM is necessary for the performance of complex tasks, such as reasoning and comprehension. Until relatively recently, WM capacity was thought to be a fixed trait of the individual. However, research findings on the effects of WM training programs have demonstrated otherwise. Therefore, this dissertation examined the impact of WM training in college students with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Learning Disabilities (LD), two neuro-developmental disorders in which WM is impaired. The main objectives of this dissertation were to investigate training gains on the WM training program itself, transfer effects, and 2-month maintenance effects. College students with ADHD/LD, all of whom were registered with student disability services, were randomized to either the WM training program or a wait-list control group. Those who received WM training showed significantly greater improvements in the criterion WM measures (WAIS-IV Digit Span, CANTAB Spatial Span) and self-reported fewer ADHD symptoms and daily cognitive failures, compared to the control group. Analysis of participants who completed the follow-up assessment indicated that the gains in WM were maintained for at least 2 months after training. The dissertation is presented in four chapters. The introduction provides a broad overview of the research on WM, ADHD/LD, and WM training. The second chapter expands upon the methods used in the current study. The third chapter consists of a manuscript that will be submitted for publication. The fourth and final chapter summarizes the findings of the current study and discusses its implications for future research and clinical practice.

The suicide of a loved one is a traumatic life event that brings considerable emotional suffering. In the present study, the term suicide survivor refers to an individual bereaved though suicide. In the aftermath of their loss, some suicide survivors become peer counsellors and thereby draw on their painful experiences to provide assistance to others bereaved in this manner. Although these individuals play an important supportive role, little is known about their experiences with doing this kind of volunteer work. This study sought to explore the phenomenon of peer counselling in suicide bereavement by addressing the question, what are the lived experiences of suicide survivors who become peer counsellors? The purpose of the study was to understand how these individuals conceptualize their volunteer work and how their volunteerism may affect their own ongoing healing from the loss to suicide. Participants were 15 individuals bereaved through suicide who had been volunteering with others bereaved in the same manner for at least two years. This research employed a qualitative phenomenological methodology to provide a detailed description of participants’ journeys that went from experiencing the suicide of a loved one, to the decision to become a peer counsellor, to, finally, providing support to other survivors. The findings suggest that participants understand the provision of peer counselling as a transformative process. As a result of their volunteering, they undergo personal growth and acquire new skills. They conceptualize providing peer counselling as reaching out to other survivors of suicide and thereby countering the loneliness and isolation of suicide bereavement. For the participants, being a peer counsellor means actively challenging the silence around suicide by speaking out about suicide-related issues and offering other survivors a safe space to share their stories. The broader implications of these findings for suicide postvention research and clinical practice are addressed.

Children with autism often display oppositionality and severe disruptive behaviour in relation to academic tasks and other parental requests. Social deficits also represent a core symptom of this disorder. As a means of treating the challenging behaviours of these children, Ducharme and Drain (2004) evaluated a proactive, non-aversive intervention, errorless academic compliance training that was focused on building child tolerance to challenging demands. In this study, the four children demonstrated impressive improvements in child compliance to academic requests throughout and following treatment. Substantial generalization to untrained academic and non-academic requests also occurred. The current study replicated the intervention used in Ducharme and Drain (2004) with a larger sample of children with autism (eight) to further substantiate the efficacy of the approach and to examine potential covariant change in child social behaviours as a result of the intervention. In a multiple baseline across subjects design, parents implemented errorless academic compliance training with their children. During baseline, they delivered various academic and household requests to determine the probability of compliance for each request. We then developed a hierarchy of academic requests ranging from high probability (i.e., Level 1) to low probability (i.e., Level 4). At the beginning of treatment, parents delivered academic requests from Level 1 and provided praise and reinforcement for compliant child responses. Children were gradually introduced to increasingly more challenging requests from subsequent probability levels and rewarded for compliance to these requests. During both baseline and treatment, we also measured aspects of child social behaviour during sessions in which parents engaged in activities with their children. Participant children demonstrated high levels of compliance throughout and following treatment, as well as generalized cooperation to untrained academic and general household requests that were not the focus of treatment. Parents reported covariant behavioural improvements (i.e., reduced problematic behaviour and positive social gains), particularly for children exhibiting more core deficits of autism. Treatment gains were maintained up to 6 months following treatment. Errorless academic compliance training appears to hold considerable potential for improving the learning and social opportunities of children with autism.

Children with autism often display oppositionality and severe disruptive behaviour in relation to academic tasks and other parental requests. Social deficits also represent a core symptom of this disorder. As a means of treating the challenging behaviours of these children, Ducharme and Drain (2004) evaluated a proactive, non-aversive intervention, errorless academic compliance training that was focused on building child tolerance to challenging demands. In this study, the four children demonstrated impressive improvements in child compliance to academic requests throughout and following treatment. Substantial generalization to untrained academic and non-academic requests also occurred. The current study replicated the intervention used in Ducharme and Drain (2004) with a larger sample of children with autism (eight) to further substantiate the efficacy of the approach and to examine potential covariant change in child social behaviours as a result of the intervention. In a multiple baseline across subjects design, parents implemented errorless academic compliance training with their children. During baseline, they delivered various academic and household requests to determine the probability of compliance for each request. We then developed a hierarchy of academic requests ranging from high probability (i.e., Level 1) to low probability (i.e., Level 4). At the beginning of treatment, parents delivered academic requests from Level 1 and provided praise and reinforcement for compliant child responses. Children were gradually introduced to increasingly more challenging requests from subsequent probability levels and rewarded for compliance to these requests. During both baseline and treatment, we also measured aspects of child social behaviour during sessions in which parents engaged in activities with their children. Participant children demonstrated high levels of compliance throughout and following treatment, as well as generalized cooperation to untrained academic and general household requests that were not the focus of treatment. Parents reported covariant behavioural improvements (i.e., reduced problematic behaviour and positive social gains), particularly for children exhibiting more core deficits of autism. Treatment gains were maintained up to 6 months following treatment. Errorless academic compliance training appears to hold considerable potential for improving the learning and social opportunities of children with autism.

The current study examined whether there is a curvilinear association between differential parenting and children’s Theory of Mind (ToM) and two similar abilities we defined as “ToM- in-Action”. These were, use of perspective taking language and cognitive sensitivity (providing tailored verbal or non-verbal guidance) while completing a challenging task with a younger sibling. A community sample of 372 children (52% were males, average age=5.6), their younger siblings (average age=3.14) and their mothers were observed in their homes. Findings showed a linear association rather than a curvilinear effect, where favored older siblings had significantly poorer cognitive sensitivity and perspective taking when interacting with their younger sibling in a challenging task. This relationship remained significant when other variables such as age and SES were controlled. The relationship between differential parenting and ToM was non-significant. Results demonstrate the specific and complex impact of differential parenting on children’s social cognition.

The current study examined whether there is a curvilinear association between differential parenting and children’s Theory of Mind (ToM) and two similar abilities we defined as “ToM- in-Action”. These were, use of perspective taking language and cognitive sensitivity (providing tailored verbal or non-verbal guidance) while completing a challenging task with a younger sibling. A community sample of 372 children (52% were males, average age=5.6), their younger siblings (average age=3.14) and their mothers were observed in their homes. Findings showed a linear association rather than a curvilinear effect, where favored older siblings had significantly poorer cognitive sensitivity and perspective taking when interacting with their younger sibling in a challenging task. This relationship remained significant when other variables such as age and SES were controlled. The relationship between differential parenting and ToM was non-significant. Results demonstrate the specific and complex impact of differential parenting on children’s social cognition.

This research was designed to contribute to an understanding of child outcomes and parenting practices associated with father-perpetrated maltreatment, as well as to identify processes that may contribute to emotion regulation difficulties in maltreated children. In particular, the studies described in this dissertation investigated paternal emotion socialization practices as potential pathways to emotion dysregulation in physically maltreated children. In the first study, a normative sample of 200 young adults participated in a retrospective analysis, whereby participants completed questionnaires designed to measure the relationships between history of physical maltreatment, emotion socialization, and current-day emotion regulation. In this study, 26.9% of participants endorsed a childhood history of father-perpetrated physical maltreatment. The second study explored these same relationships in a concurrent analysis of physically maltreating and non-maltreating father-child dyads. Fourteen physically maltreated children and their fathers were recruited from the Children’s Aid Society and treatment programs for abusive fathers, and a control group matched on demographic variables was recruited from the community. Father-child dyads participated in an emotion interaction task where they discussed the child’s experience of negative emotions; interactions were videotaped and coded for fathers’ validating and invalidating responses to children’s emotions. Fathers and children also completed measures that further assessed paternal emotion socialization, as well as children’s emotion regulation. Across both studies, findings indicated that physically maltreated children experienced more difficulties with emotion regulation than their non-maltreated peers. Moreover, abusive fathers were more likely to use non-supportive (neglect, punish, invalidation) and anger magnifying socialization practices, and less likely to use supportive (reward, validation) emotion socialization. Finally, results showed that the relationship between physical maltreatment and emotion dysregulation was mediated through the indirect effects of emotion socialization (reward, neglect, punish, magnify anger, validation, invalidation). In particular, data from child maltreatment victims consistently indicated that paternal neglect of negative emotions and magnification of anger were the strongest unique mediators. Together, results highlight the important role of fathers in the regulatory development of maltreated children. Furthermore, they provide support for intervention efforts designed to decrease non-supportive emotion socialization, while fostering anger management, emotional responsivity, and emotion coaching skills for physically abusive fathers.