Research suggests that brain growth follows an abnormal trajectory in children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). A better understanding of when and how patterns of brain development diverge from that seen in typically developing children could yield insight into the etiology of the disorder, and resulting symptomatology. To investigate this hypothesis, three studies examined the relation between structural and functional brain measures and age in a group of children with an ASD, aged 6 to 14 years. Age by group interactions were found in all three studies, providing further evidence that brain development may follow an atypical trajectory in ASD. Study 1: Differences in the relation between structural indices and age were found in grey matter volume, surface area and thickness, as well as in cortical thickness of specific regions in the left inferior frontal gyrus (BA 44) and left precuneus. These measures of grey matter structure generally decreased with age in the ASD children, compared to little or no change with age in the typically developing children. Study 2: Differences in the relation between age and measures of longitudinal, radial and mean diffusivity were found in frontal, long distant, interhemispheric and posterior white matter tracts; diffusivity decreased with age in the typically developing group, but showed little or no change in the ASD group. Study 3: Differences in the relation between BOLD activation on a set-shifting task and age were found in brain regions important for cognitive flexibility, such as areas of prefrontal, right insula and parietal cortex. These effects were mainly due to decreasing activation with age for the ASD group, but increasing or no age-related change in the TD group. The findings of these three studies provide converging evidence in support of an hypothesis of dysregulated brain development in this population, which could have significant, compounding effects on the development of neural connectivity, and contribute to atypical cognitive development in children with ASD.

The present investigation examined a sample of 64 offenders treated at the Regional Treatment Centre (Ontario) Sex Offender Treatment Program (RTCSOTP) and a sample of 55 untreated sexual offenders from the Ontario region of Correctional Service of Canada. Groups were matched on age at index offence, Hare Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R) score and type of sexual offender. The Rapid Risk Assessment of Sexual Offence Recidivism Scale was scored on all participants. Recidivism, based upon officially recorded charges and conviction data, was the primary dependent measure. Results indicated that both treated participants and control participants, including those with high PCL-R scores, evidenced low sexual recidivism rates. Based on a survival analysis using time to recidivism as the dependent variable, no differences were found between treated and untreated sexual offenders. The need to consider a wider range of treatment outcome measures and the benefits of using dynamic methods of risk assessment are highlighted.

The current study explored the relationship between client’s history of childhood abuse and psychotherapy outcome, specifically, depressive symptoms, interpersonal problems, dysfunctional attitudes, self-esteem and attachment. The study also explored the relationship between client’s history of childhood abuse and current introject style, as well as the relationship between client introject style and psychotherapy outcome. The current study consisted of a sample of 60 clients and was drawn from an archival database of clients who were diagnosed with Major Depressive Disorder and received 16 weeks of psychotherapy treatment (Watson, Gordon, Stermac, Kalogerakos & Steckley (2003). Client’s history of childhood abuse was determined using the Traumatic Stress Inventory (TSI short-form; McCann & Pearlman, 1992). Introject styles were established using the Structural Analysis of Social Behaviour (SASB; Benjamin, 1974), an observer rated process measure. The middle 15 minutes of an early (session 3) and late session (session 15) were rated using the SASB. Results indicated that women who experienced childhood abuse showed a reduction in levels of their self-accepting introject style in session 15 compared to session 3 while women without childhood abuse showed increased levels of the self-accepting introject style in session 15 compared to session 3. Results also indicated that clients with managing and cultivating of self introject styles as measured at session 3 showed improvements in dysfunctional attitudes, interpersonal problems and self-esteem by the end of 16-weeks of psychotherapy. Having a history of childhood abuse was not related to any of the outcome measures; clients, regardless of history of childhood abuse improved over time. Results did show history of childhood abuse to be related to perceptions of early childhood attachment experiences; specifically, clients with histories of childhood abuse showed higher scores overall for perceptions of experiences with caregivers as rejecting and angry. Finally, results indicated that clients with a history of childhood abuse have a significantly greater number of depressive episodes on average than clients without a history of childhood abuse. Implications for future research and clinical work are discussed.

This thesis includes four studies designed to improve the ability to predict and assess language representation in healthy children and/or individuals with neurological disorders arising in childhood. In the first study, the role of pathology type on interhemispheric plasticity of language was determined by comparing lateralization in children with developmental, acquired, and tumour pathologies. Findings from 105 consecutive intracarotid sodium amobarbital procedures were retrospectively analyzed, revealing no lateralization differences between pathology groups. In the second study, a novel verb generation paradigm and magnetoencephalography (MEG) were used to determine the spatial-temporal characteristics of language expression in healthy subjects (n = 12) and children with neurological disorders (n = 4). Time-frequency and differential beamformer analyses revealed low-beta event-related desynchronization (ERD) in the left inferior frontal lobe for verb generation. The paradigm was well-tolerated by all subjects. The third study involved assessment of expressive language lateralization in 25 healthy subjects, aged 5-18 years, using two novel MEG paradigms: covert picture naming and verb generation. Novel analyses permitted objective quantification of ERD lateralization on an individual basis. For both tasks, left lateralization of frontal lobe ERD tended to increase with advancing age. Findings suggest that adult-typical left lateralization emerges from an early bilateral language network in normal development. In the fourth study, frontal lobe ERD lateralization for naming and verb generation was characterized in 14 children and adolescents with neurological disorders. Novel analyses permitted objective assessment of individual scans at multiple contrast time windows. In several cases, rapid hemispheric shifts in predominant frontal lobe ERD were observed through the response period. On an individual basis, the assessment protocol showed promise for future use in a presurgical context. These studies serve to advance the understanding of normal paediatric language representation, and improve the ability to predict and assess language lateralization in individuals who have experienced early neurological insults.

Preliminary novel research findings indicate that a subset of individuals with moderate to severe traumatic brain injury show bilateral hippocampal atrophy progressing beyond the acute stage post-injury. The present study proposes a novel, integrated model of neuroprotection against subacute hippocampal atrophy (i.e., atrophy occurring beyond the initial 3 months post-injury) via environmental enrichment, drawing on theoretical models and research findings from the fields of environmental enrichment, brain and cognitive reserve, and neuroplastic models of functional recovery from brain injury. Objectives: (a) to examine the relationship between environmental enrichment factors and subacute hippocampal atrophy and (b) to examine the relationship between subacute hippocampal atrophy and return to productivity. Design: Retrospective observational within-subjects. Participants: Patients (N=21) with moderate to severe TBI. Measures: Primary predictors: Self-report ratings of environmental enrichment factors (i.e., hours of cognitive, physical, and social activities, meditation/prayer, and therapy). Primary outcome: hippocampal volume change between 5 months and 24+ months post-injury based on initial and follow-up MRI scans; Brain Injury Community Rehabilitation Outcome Scales-39 (BICRO-39). Results: Generalized environmental enrichment (i.e., an aggregate of cognitive, physical, and social activity) was significantly negatively correlated with subacute bilateral hippocampal atrophy (p<.05). Cognitive activity was the environmental enrichment element that accounted for the greatest degree of variance (32%) in subacute bilateral hippocampal atrophy (p<.01). Frequency of meditation/prayer was significantly negatively correlated with right hippocampal subacute atrophy (<.05) after controlling for socioeconomic status and generalized environmental enrichment. Level of education and pre-injury occupational attainment did not correlate with subacute hippocampal atrophy. Conclusion: Findings suggest that a fixed degree of neural reserve at the time of brain injury may not confer neuroprotection against structural pathology in the manner suggested by the present study’s proposed model of neuroprotection via environmental enrichment. Instead, findings suggest that in order for environmental enrichment to positively modulate susceptibility to subacute hippocampal atrophy post-TBI, environmental enrichment exposure must occur during the subacute phase post-injury rather than prior to injury.

Despite concerted efforts to eradicate violence against women and challenge victim-blaming attitudes towards survivors of sexual assault, women continue to be sexually victimized and encounter negative and accusatory reactions by family, friends, and society at large. For many survivors, the consequences are internalizing blame and feelings of shame, which has been shown to be related to increased psychological distress, self-destructive coping mechanisms, depression, generalized anxiety, and post-traumatic stress (Arata, 1999; Davis &amp; Breslau, 1994; Feiring, Taska, &amp; Lewis, 2002; Frazier, 1990, 2000; Frazier &amp; Schauben, 1994; Wyatt et al., 1990). New research in the area of self-compassion suggests that this way of self-relating can counter shame (Gilbert, 2005) and serve as a resiliency factor for coping with daily stressors (Leary, Tate, Adams, Allen, &amp; Hancock, 2007) and contribute to well-being (Neff, 2003a). No study has yet empirically evaluated self-compassion among survivors of trauma, nor more specifically, victims of sexual assault. The present study investigated the relationships between self-compassion and various indicators of psychological health that have been associated with posttrauma adjustment. One hundred and forty-one women in North America who experienced a sexual assault in the past 5 years (aged 18 to 61, M age = 27 years) completed measures assessing trauma history (sexual trauma history, childhood trauma and stressful life experiences), posttrauma adjustment (psychological distress, negative posttraumatic cognitions, and shame), self-compassion, self-criticism, and life satisfaction. The results of the study showed that self-compassion was significantly negatively related to psychological distress, negative posttraumatic cognitions, shame and self-criticism, and was positively related to life satisfaction. Hierarchical linear regressions revealed that when controlling for earlier childhood trauma and other stressful life experiences, self-compassion was a strong and significant predictor, explaining between 19 to 42% of the variance in psychological distress, negative posttraumatic cognitions, shame, and self-criticism. Comparing groups based on severity of sexual assault revealed that women who experienced attempted rape reported significantly higher levels of self-criticism compared with women who experienced sexual coercion. These findings bolster recent studies that equate self-compassion with psychological resilience. The negative relationships revealed between self-compassion and measures reflecting posttrauma adjustment and self-criticism, along with the positive association with life satisfaction clearly demonstrate validity in the pursuit of self-compassion as an important psychological construct that may help women recover from sexual trauma.

Despite concerted efforts to eradicate violence against women and challenge victim-blaming attitudes towards survivors of sexual assault, women continue to be sexually victimized and encounter negative and accusatory reactions by family, friends, and society at large. For many survivors, the consequences are internalizing blame and feelings of shame, which has been shown to be related to increased psychological distress, self-destructive coping mechanisms, depression, generalized anxiety, and post-traumatic stress (Arata, 1999; Davis &amp; Breslau, 1994; Feiring, Taska, &amp; Lewis, 2002; Frazier, 1990, 2000; Frazier &amp; Schauben, 1994; Wyatt et al., 1990). New research in the area of self-compassion suggests that this way of self-relating can counter shame (Gilbert, 2005) and serve as a resiliency factor for coping with daily stressors (Leary, Tate, Adams, Allen, &amp; Hancock, 2007) and contribute to well-being (Neff, 2003a). No study has yet empirically evaluated self-compassion among survivors of trauma, nor more specifically, victims of sexual assault. The present study investigated the relationships between self-compassion and various indicators of psychological health that have been associated with posttrauma adjustment. One hundred and forty-one women in North America who experienced a sexual assault in the past 5 years (aged 18 to 61, M age = 27 years) completed measures assessing trauma history (sexual trauma history, childhood trauma and stressful life experiences), posttrauma adjustment (psychological distress, negative posttraumatic cognitions, and shame), self-compassion, self-criticism, and life satisfaction. The results of the study showed that self-compassion was significantly negatively related to psychological distress, negative posttraumatic cognitions, shame and self-criticism, and was positively related to life satisfaction. Hierarchical linear regressions revealed that when controlling for earlier childhood trauma and other stressful life experiences, self-compassion was a strong and significant predictor, explaining between 19 to 42% of the variance in psychological distress, negative posttraumatic cognitions, shame, and self-criticism. Comparing groups based on severity of sexual assault revealed that women who experienced attempted rape reported significantly higher levels of self-criticism compared with women who experienced sexual coercion. These findings bolster recent studies that equate self-compassion with psychological resilience. The negative relationships revealed between self-compassion and measures reflecting posttrauma adjustment and self-criticism, along with the positive association with life satisfaction clearly demonstrate validity in the pursuit of self-compassion as an important psychological construct that may help women recover from sexual trauma.

The Dangerous and Severe Personality Disorder (DSPD) initiative in England and Wales, underway since 2000, provides specialized care to high risk personality disordered individuals in prison and secure psychiatric facilities. Entry to the service, for a capacity nationwide total of approximately 300 individuals at four sites, is determined in part by risk (whether or not the individual is more likely than not to commit an offence that might be expected to lead to serious physical or psychological harm from which the victim would find it hard to recover). This requires valid procedures for assessing risk to determine individuals’ suitability for entry into and transfer out of the service. Yet little is known about the validity of current risk assessment tools and personality measures with the DSPD population. One of the studies reported, the first of its kind with the DSPD population, described a prospective evaluation of the predictive accuracy of the HCR-20, VRS, Static-99, and Risk Matrix 2000 with 44 admissions to the DSPD unit at a high security forensic psychiatric hospital. Consistent with hypotheses, all tools predicted damage to property. HCR-20 Total and scale scores predicted interpersonal physical aggression with structured final risk judgments also predicting repetitive (2+ incidents of) interpersonal physical aggression. HCR-20 Risk Management scores were significantly associated with imminence of interpersonal physical aggression. The second study described a prospective evaluation of the predictive accuracy of Psychopathy Checklist-Revised Factor and Facet scores as well as scores for Cluster B traits using the International Personality Disorder Examination with the same sample. Partial support for hypotheses was found. Only Borderline PD dimension scores predicted damage to property. Histrionic PD predicted interpersonal physical aggression, and Histrionic, Borderline, and Antisocial PDs all predicted repetitive interpersonal physical aggression. Factor 1 and Facets 1 and 2 were also significant predictors of interpersonal physical aggression. Factor 1 and Histrionic PD scores were also significantly associated with imminence of this type of aggression. Results were discussed in terms of the practical utility of these tools with high risk forensic psychiatric inpatients and the functional link (between personality disorder and violence) criterion for DSPD service entry.

Depression and borderline personality disorder (BPD) are highly comorbid and are both characteristic of affective disturbance. In this study, it is hypothesized that the disorders share a common etiological factor of emotion reactivity. In addition, an investigation of specific emotional experiences that may differentiate the two symptom clusters is undertaken. A mood induction task was used to elicit emotional reactions in a sample of 121 university students. Regression analyses were conducted to examine emotion reactivity as a common factor. Unique associations between specific emotions and features of BPD, depression, and an interaction term (BPDxDep) were investigated. It was found that all models tested were significant, with the exception of joy. Features of BPD were uniquely associated with sadness, guilt, and anger, as were depressive features. BPDxDep symptoms were negatively associated with guilt. A discussion of the findings obtained and their significance in theory and in practice is undertaken.

Depression and borderline personality disorder (BPD) are highly comorbid and are both characteristic of affective disturbance. In this study, it is hypothesized that the disorders share a common etiological factor of emotion reactivity. In addition, an investigation of specific emotional experiences that may differentiate the two symptom clusters is undertaken. A mood induction task was used to elicit emotional reactions in a sample of 121 university students. Regression analyses were conducted to examine emotion reactivity as a common factor. Unique associations between specific emotions and features of BPD, depression, and an interaction term (BPDxDep) were investigated. It was found that all models tested were significant, with the exception of joy. Features of BPD were uniquely associated with sadness, guilt, and anger, as were depressive features. BPDxDep symptoms were negatively associated with guilt. A discussion of the findings obtained and their significance in theory and in practice is undertaken.