Mars represents one of the most important targets for space exploration in the next 10 to 30 years, particularly because of evidence of liquid water in the planet's past. Current environmental conditions dictate that any existing water reserves will be in the form of ice; finding and sampling these ice deposits would further the study of the planet's climate history, further the search for evidence of life, and facilitate in-situ resource utilization during future manned exploration missions. This thesis presents a suite of algorithms to help enable a robotic ice-prospecting mission to Mars. Starting from visual odometry---the estimation of a rover's motion using a stereo camera as the primary sensor---we develop the following extensions: (i) a coupled surface/subsurface modelling system that provides novel data products to scientists working remotely, (ii) an autonomous retrotraverse system that allows a rover to return to previously visited places along a route for sampling, or to return a sample to an ascent vehicle, and (iii) the extension of the appearance-based visual odometry pipeline to an actively illuminated light detection and ranging sensor that provides data similar to a stereo camera but is not reliant on consistent ambient lighting, thereby enabling appearance-based vision techniques to be used in environments that are not conducive to passive cameras, such as underground mines or permanently shadowed craters on the moon. All algorithms are evaluated on real data collected using our field robot at the University of Toronto Institute for Aerospace Studies, or at a planetary analogue site on Devon Island, in the Canadian High Arctic.

Mars represents one of the most important targets for space exploration in the next 10 to 30 years, particularly because of evidence of liquid water in the planet's past. Current environmental conditions dictate that any existing water reserves will be in the form of ice; finding and sampling these ice deposits would further the study of the planet's climate history, further the search for evidence of life, and facilitate in-situ resource utilization during future manned exploration missions. This thesis presents a suite of algorithms to help enable a robotic ice-prospecting mission to Mars. Starting from visual odometry---the estimation of a rover's motion using a stereo camera as the primary sensor---we develop the following extensions: (i) a coupled surface/subsurface modelling system that provides novel data products to scientists working remotely, (ii) an autonomous retrotraverse system that allows a rover to return to previously visited places along a route for sampling, or to return a sample to an ascent vehicle, and (iii) the extension of the appearance-based visual odometry pipeline to an actively illuminated light detection and ranging sensor that provides data similar to a stereo camera but is not reliant on consistent ambient lighting, thereby enabling appearance-based vision techniques to be used in environments that are not conducive to passive cameras, such as underground mines or permanently shadowed craters on the moon. All algorithms are evaluated on real data collected using our field robot at the University of Toronto Institute for Aerospace Studies, or at a planetary analogue site on Devon Island, in the Canadian High Arctic.

Advances in the synthesis of micrometer and nanometer-sized materials have resulted in a range of novel materials having unique properties. Characterizing those materials is important for understanding their properties and exploring their applications. Physically manipulating those materials is important for constructing devices. This thesis develops tools and techniques for the manipulation and characterization of micro and nanomaterials. A microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) microgripper is developed to pick and place micro-objects, achieving high repeatability, accuracy, and speed. The adhesion forces at the microscale are overcome by actively releasing the adhered micro-object from the microgripper. A microrobotic system is built based on this microgripper and realizes automated pick-and-place of microspheres to form patterns. To characterize the electrical properties of one-dimensional nanomaterials, a nanorobotic system is developed to control four nanomanipulators for automated four-point probe measurement of individual nanowires inside a scanning electron microscope (SEM). SEM is used as a vision sensor to realize visual servo control and contact detection. To characterize the electromechanical properties of individual nanowires, a MEMS device is designed and fabricated that is capable of simultaneous tensile testing and current-voltage measurement of a nanowire specimen. A nanomanipulation procedure is developed to transfer a single nanowire from its growth substrate to the MEMS device in SEM. The piezoresistive properties of silicon nanowires are characterized. A nanomanipulation system is developed that is capable of being mounted onto and demounted from the SEM specimen stage without opening the high-vacuum chamber. The system architecture allows the nanomanipulators to be transferred through the SEM load-lock. This advance facilitates the replacement of end-effectors and circumvents chamber contamination due to venting.

This thesis lays the foundations for the development of a small autonomous coaxial helicopter. This is an helicopter with two propellers mounted on the same axis and revolving in opposite directions. To steer the helicopter, this thesis proposes a mechanism that moves the helicopter’s centre of mass. Although such a mechanism has already been investigated experimentally in the literature, it has never been rigorously modeled, and a theoretical analysis has never been performed. This thesis, for the first time, presents an accurate mathematical model of the coaxial helicopter which takes into account the gyroscopic effects of the rotors, the reaction forces and torques exerted by the moving mass actuator on the helicopter body, and the fact that the inertia of the helicopter is time-varying. A nonlinear controller is rigorously derived which makes the helicopter hover at desired positions in three-space. A number of physical prototypes are discussed. None of them is capable of autonomous flight yet, but the experimental and simulation results provide reassurances that the proposed methodology is viable.

This thesis lays the foundations for the development of a small autonomous coaxial helicopter. This is an helicopter with two propellers mounted on the same axis and revolving in opposite directions. To steer the helicopter, this thesis proposes a mechanism that moves the helicopter’s centre of mass. Although such a mechanism has already been investigated experimentally in the literature, it has never been rigorously modeled, and a theoretical analysis has never been performed. This thesis, for the first time, presents an accurate mathematical model of the coaxial helicopter which takes into account the gyroscopic effects of the rotors, the reaction forces and torques exerted by the moving mass actuator on the helicopter body, and the fact that the inertia of the helicopter is time-varying. A nonlinear controller is rigorously derived which makes the helicopter hover at desired positions in three-space. A number of physical prototypes are discussed. None of them is capable of autonomous flight yet, but the experimental and simulation results provide reassurances that the proposed methodology is viable.

Advances in the synthesis of micrometer and nanometer-sized materials have resulted in a range of novel materials having unique properties. Characterizing those materials is important for understanding their properties and exploring their applications. Physically manipulating those materials is important for constructing devices. This thesis develops tools and techniques for the manipulation and characterization of micro and nanomaterials. A microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) microgripper is developed to pick and place micro-objects, achieving high repeatability, accuracy, and speed. The adhesion forces at the microscale are overcome by actively releasing the adhered micro-object from the microgripper. A microrobotic system is built based on this microgripper and realizes automated pick-and-place of microspheres to form patterns. To characterize the electrical properties of one-dimensional nanomaterials, a nanorobotic system is developed to control four nanomanipulators for automated four-point probe measurement of individual nanowires inside a scanning electron microscope (SEM). SEM is used as a vision sensor to realize visual servo control and contact detection. To characterize the electromechanical properties of individual nanowires, a MEMS device is designed and fabricated that is capable of simultaneous tensile testing and current-voltage measurement of a nanowire specimen. A nanomanipulation procedure is developed to transfer a single nanowire from its growth substrate to the MEMS device in SEM. The piezoresistive properties of silicon nanowires are characterized. A nanomanipulation system is developed that is capable of being mounted onto and demounted from the SEM specimen stage without opening the high-vacuum chamber. The system architecture allows the nanomanipulators to be transferred through the SEM load-lock. This advance facilitates the replacement of end-effectors and circumvents chamber contamination due to venting.

This thesis proposes a method for the design of a real-time neuro-fuzzy trajectory generator for the robotic rehabilitation of patients with upper limb dysfunction due to neurological diseases. The system utilizes a fuzzy-logic schema to introduce compliance into the human-robot interaction, and to allow the emulation of a wide variety of therapy techniques. This approach also allows for the fine-tuning of system dynamics using linguistic variables. The rule base for the system is trained using a fuzzy clustering algorithm and applied to experimental data gathered during traditional therapy sessions. The compliance rule base is combined with a hybrid neuro-fuzzy compensator to automatically tune the dynamics of the system. The trajectory generator is packaged as a platform-independent solution to facilitate the rehabilitation of patients using multiple manipulator configurations.

This thesis proposes a method for the design of a real-time neuro-fuzzy trajectory generator for the robotic rehabilitation of patients with upper limb dysfunction due to neurological diseases. The system utilizes a fuzzy-logic schema to introduce compliance into the human-robot interaction, and to allow the emulation of a wide variety of therapy techniques. This approach also allows for the fine-tuning of system dynamics using linguistic variables. The rule base for the system is trained using a fuzzy clustering algorithm and applied to experimental data gathered during traditional therapy sessions. The compliance rule base is combined with a hybrid neuro-fuzzy compensator to automatically tune the dynamics of the system. The trajectory generator is packaged as a platform-independent solution to facilitate the rehabilitation of patients using multiple manipulator configurations.

A virtual holonomic constraint (VHC) for an Euler-Lagrange Control System is a smooth relation between the configuration variables that can be made invariant through application of suitable feedback. In this thesis we investigate the role played by VHCs in the synchronization of Euler-Lagrange systems. We focus on two problems. For $N$ underactuated cart-pendulums, we design a smooth feedback that fully synchronizes the cart-pendulums while simultaneously stabilizing a periodic orbit corresponding to a desired oscillation for the pendulums. A by-product of our results is the ability to simultaneously synchronize the pendulums and stabilize the unstable upright equilibrium. The second synchronization problem investigated in this thesis is bilateral teleoperation, whereby a master robot is operated by a human while a slave robot synchronizes to the master. For two identical planar manipulators, we develop a methodology to achieve teleoperation in the presence of a hard surface, with simultaneous force control.

A virtual holonomic constraint (VHC) for an Euler-Lagrange Control System is a smooth relation between the configuration variables that can be made invariant through application of suitable feedback. In this thesis we investigate the role played by VHCs in the synchronization of Euler-Lagrange systems. We focus on two problems. For $N$ underactuated cart-pendulums, we design a smooth feedback that fully synchronizes the cart-pendulums while simultaneously stabilizing a periodic orbit corresponding to a desired oscillation for the pendulums. A by-product of our results is the ability to simultaneously synchronize the pendulums and stabilize the unstable upright equilibrium. The second synchronization problem investigated in this thesis is bilateral teleoperation, whereby a master robot is operated by a human while a slave robot synchronizes to the master. For two identical planar manipulators, we develop a methodology to achieve teleoperation in the presence of a hard surface, with simultaneous force control.