The variability in protein number was studied. The reporter protein Enhanced Green Fluorescent Protein (EGFP) in various strains of Escherichia coli with regulated and unregulated plasmid copy number systems were investigated. The relaxation of perturbed population was studied in two different systems and cell division was observed to drive the relaxation of perturbed populations. It was found that an unregulated system has more inclusion bodies in comparison to regulated one. This accounted for the difference in correlation between cell size and protein number in two different systems. Flow cytometry was cross-validated with fluorescence microscopy and it was concluded that the Forward Scatter signal in a flow cytometer is representative of size in terms of generating size distributions. A new method for determining cell viability was devised, reducing the analysis time to less than five minutes. The unregulated system in comparison to the regulated one tends to have higher percentage of dead cells.

The variability in protein number was studied. The reporter protein Enhanced Green Fluorescent Protein (EGFP) in various strains of Escherichia coli with regulated and unregulated plasmid copy number systems were investigated. The relaxation of perturbed population was studied in two different systems and cell division was observed to drive the relaxation of perturbed populations. It was found that an unregulated system has more inclusion bodies in comparison to regulated one. This accounted for the difference in correlation between cell size and protein number in two different systems. Flow cytometry was cross-validated with fluorescence microscopy and it was concluded that the Forward Scatter signal in a flow cytometer is representative of size in terms of generating size distributions. A new method for determining cell viability was devised, reducing the analysis time to less than five minutes. The unregulated system in comparison to the regulated one tends to have higher percentage of dead cells.

ClpX is an ATPase that belongs to a unique group of ATP-dependent chaperones supporting targeted protein unfolding and degradation in concert with their respective proteases. ClpX functions alone or in conjunction with a cylindrical serine protease ClpP. ClpX consists of an N-terminal domain and a C-terminal AAA+ ATP-binding domain. The chaperone oligomerizes into a hexamer with the AAA+ domains forming the base of the hexamer and the N-termini extending out of the base. Here we demonstrate that the N-terminal domain of ClpX is a C4-type zinc binding domain (ZBD) which forms a very stable dimer. ZBD is essential for promoting the degradation of some established ClpXP substrates such as lambdaO and MuA. Experiments indicate that ZBD contains a primary binding site for the lambdaO substrate and for the cofactor SspB. Furthermore, analysis of the binding preferences of the ZBD and AAA+ domains revealed that both domains preferentially bind to hydrophobic residues but have different sequence preferences, with the AAA+ domain preferentially recognizing a wider range of specific sequences than ZBD. As part of this analysis, the binding site of SspB on ZBD in ClpX was determined by NMR and mutational analysis. The SspB C-terminus was found to interact with a hydrophobic patch on the surface of ZBD. The affinity of SspB towards ZBD and the geometry of the SspB-ZBD complex were also investigated. Analysis of ClpX conformational changes during its functional cycle indicated that the ZBDs in ClpX undergo a large nucleotide-dependent block movement into the AAA+ ring. Hence, we propose that ClpX switches between a capture and a feeding conformation. Based on all of these results, the ZBD in ClpX clearly plays a major role in substrate binding and cofactor recognition, as well as in substrate translocation into the ClpP chamber.

ClpX is an ATPase that belongs to a unique group of ATP-dependent chaperones supporting targeted protein unfolding and degradation in concert with their respective proteases. ClpX functions alone or in conjunction with a cylindrical serine protease ClpP. ClpX consists of an N-terminal domain and a C-terminal AAA+ ATP-binding domain. The chaperone oligomerizes into a hexamer with the AAA+ domains forming the base of the hexamer and the N-termini extending out of the base. Here we demonstrate that the N-terminal domain of ClpX is a C4-type zinc binding domain (ZBD) which forms a very stable dimer. ZBD is essential for promoting the degradation of some established ClpXP substrates such as lambdaO and MuA. Experiments indicate that ZBD contains a primary binding site for the lambdaO substrate and for the cofactor SspB. Furthermore, analysis of the binding preferences of the ZBD and AAA+ domains revealed that both domains preferentially bind to hydrophobic residues but have different sequence preferences, with the AAA+ domain preferentially recognizing a wider range of specific sequences than ZBD. As part of this analysis, the binding site of SspB on ZBD in ClpX was determined by NMR and mutational analysis. The SspB C-terminus was found to interact with a hydrophobic patch on the surface of ZBD. The affinity of SspB towards ZBD and the geometry of the SspB-ZBD complex were also investigated. Analysis of ClpX conformational changes during its functional cycle indicated that the ZBDs in ClpX undergo a large nucleotide-dependent block movement into the AAA+ ring. Hence, we propose that ClpX switches between a capture and a feeding conformation. Based on all of these results, the ZBD in ClpX clearly plays a major role in substrate binding and cofactor recognition, as well as in substrate translocation into the ClpP chamber.

In clinical oncology and experimental therapeutics, changes in tumour growth rate or volume have been traditionally the first indication of treatment response. These changes typically occur late in the course of therapy. Currently, no routinely available imaging modality is capable of assessing tumour response to cancer treatment within hours or days after delivery of radiation treatment. Therefore, the goal of this thesis is to develop the use of ultrasound imaging and ultrasound characterization methods with frequencies of 10 to 30 MHz to assess non-invasively tumour response to radiotherapy, early, within hours to days after delivery of radiotherapy. Responses to radiotherapy were characterized initially in vitro in a well-controlled environment using cell samples. It was demonstrated experimentally that the changes in ultrasound integrated backscatter and spectral slopes were the direct consequences of cell and nuclear morphological changes associated with cell death. The research in vitro provided a basis for the in vivo research that characterized responses to radiotherapy in cancer mouse models. The results from mouse tumour models indicated that quantitative ultrasound could detect the regions in a tumour that corresponded in histology to areas of cell death. In order to understand the cellular morphological changes responsible for ultrasound scattering at these frequencies and assist in the interpretation of experimental data, numerical simulations of ultrasound scattering from four different cell lines exposed to radiotherapy were conducted and compared to experimental results. It was concluded that the increases measured in ultrasound backscatter could in part be explained by the increase in the randomization of cell nuclei resulting from the increase in the variance of cell sizes following cell death. In this thesis, it is demonstrated that ultrasound imaging and quantitative ultrasound methods were able to detect non-invasively early responses to radiotherapy in vitro and in vivo. The mechanism behind this detection was linked to changes in the acoustic properties of nuclei and changes in the spatial organization of cells and nuclei following cell death. This provides the groundwork for future investigations regarding the use of ultrasound in cancer patients to individualize treatments non-invasively based on their responses to specific interventions.

Much evidence indicates that G protein-coupled receptors can form oligomers, but the size and stability of those oligomers has not been well characterised. We used single-particle tracking (SPT) and Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) to measure the oligomeric size of the M2 muscarinic receptor, a prototypical class A GPCR, in live cells. Single-particle intensity distributions that we obtained for the monomeric control CD86 and the dimeric control CD28 are nearly identical, and no conclusion about the oligomeric size of M2 receptors could be drawn from SPT measurements. FRET measurements allowed us to distinguish the monomeric control CD86 from the dimeric controls CD28 and caveolin-1, and the pattern of efficiencies produced by M2 receptors is similar to the pattern produced by the monomers but not the dimers. The view of M2 muscarinic receptors as transient oligomers appears to be the most consistent with other studies using different biochemical and biophysical techniques.

Much evidence indicates that G protein-coupled receptors can form oligomers, but the size and stability of those oligomers has not been well characterised. We used single-particle tracking (SPT) and Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) to measure the oligomeric size of the M2 muscarinic receptor, a prototypical class A GPCR, in live cells. Single-particle intensity distributions that we obtained for the monomeric control CD86 and the dimeric control CD28 are nearly identical, and no conclusion about the oligomeric size of M2 receptors could be drawn from SPT measurements. FRET measurements allowed us to distinguish the monomeric control CD86 from the dimeric controls CD28 and caveolin-1, and the pattern of efficiencies produced by M2 receptors is similar to the pattern produced by the monomers but not the dimers. The view of M2 muscarinic receptors as transient oligomers appears to be the most consistent with other studies using different biochemical and biophysical techniques.

In clinical oncology and experimental therapeutics, changes in tumour growth rate or volume have been traditionally the first indication of treatment response. These changes typically occur late in the course of therapy. Currently, no routinely available imaging modality is capable of assessing tumour response to cancer treatment within hours or days after delivery of radiation treatment. Therefore, the goal of this thesis is to develop the use of ultrasound imaging and ultrasound characterization methods with frequencies of 10 to 30 MHz to assess non-invasively tumour response to radiotherapy, early, within hours to days after delivery of radiotherapy. Responses to radiotherapy were characterized initially in vitro in a well-controlled environment using cell samples. It was demonstrated experimentally that the changes in ultrasound integrated backscatter and spectral slopes were the direct consequences of cell and nuclear morphological changes associated with cell death. The research in vitro provided a basis for the in vivo research that characterized responses to radiotherapy in cancer mouse models. The results from mouse tumour models indicated that quantitative ultrasound could detect the regions in a tumour that corresponded in histology to areas of cell death. In order to understand the cellular morphological changes responsible for ultrasound scattering at these frequencies and assist in the interpretation of experimental data, numerical simulations of ultrasound scattering from four different cell lines exposed to radiotherapy were conducted and compared to experimental results. It was concluded that the increases measured in ultrasound backscatter could in part be explained by the increase in the randomization of cell nuclei resulting from the increase in the variance of cell sizes following cell death. In this thesis, it is demonstrated that ultrasound imaging and quantitative ultrasound methods were able to detect non-invasively early responses to radiotherapy in vitro and in vivo. The mechanism behind this detection was linked to changes in the acoustic properties of nuclei and changes in the spatial organization of cells and nuclei following cell death. This provides the groundwork for future investigations regarding the use of ultrasound in cancer patients to individualize treatments non-invasively based on their responses to specific interventions.

Haematopoiesis requires strict regulation in order to maintain a balanced production of the various blood cell components. Escape from this regulation contributes to the development of cancers such as leukemia. SOCS2 is a member of the Suppressor of cytokine signalling (SOCS) family, and normally functions as a negative regulator of the JAK/STAT pathway. I examined gene expression and promoter methylation in acute myeloid leukemia (AML) cell lines and patient samples. SOCS2 expression was quite variable in AML patients, and very low in acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL) patients. Promoter hyper-methylation was found in these patients, particularly those with high white blood cell count and a FLT3-ITD. I speculate that SOCS2 interacts with an aspect of the signalling complex to inhibit cell growth in these patients, and silencing SOCS2 is necessary for leukemia progression. Treating these patients with a de-methylating agent, such as decitabine, may show promise in the clinic.

Gene expression, which connects genomic information to functional units in living cells, has received substantial attention since the completion of The Human Genome Project. Quantitative characterization of gene expression will provide valuable information for understanding the behavior of living cells, and possibilities of building synthetic gene circuits to control or modify the behavior of naturally occurring cells. Many aspects of quantitative gene expression have been studied, including gene expression dynamics and noise in E. coli. The gene expression process itself is stochastic, and modelling approaches have been broadly used to study gene expression noise; however, stochastic gene expression models are usually large and time intensive to simulate. To speed up simulations, we have developed a systematic method to simplify gene expression models with fast and slow dynamics, and investigated when we can ignore the gene expression from the background genome when modelling the gene expression from plasmids. When modelling the noise in gene expression, one usually neglected aspect is the slow maturation process of fluorescent proteins, necessary for the protein to give out fluorescence after it is produced. By modelling, we show that the maturation steps can bring large changes to both the mean protein number and the noise in the model. An unstudied aspect of gene expression dynamics is the time dependent gene expression behavior in E. coli batch culture. Contrary to the usual assumption, we have found, in E. coli batch culture gene expression, that there is no steady state in terms of both the mean number of proteins and the noise. Negative feedback is thought to be able to reduce the noise in a system, and experiments have shown that negative feedback indeed suppresses the noise in gene expression, but the modelling shows that negative feedback will increase the noise. We have found that the increase of noise by feedback is due to the exclusion of extrinsic noise from the model, and that negative feedback will suppress the extrinsic noise while increasing the intrinsic noise. Living cells are crowded with macromolecules, which will, predicted by modelling, make the reaction constant time dependent. Our experimental observation has confirmed this prediction.