published_or_final_version / Chinese / Master / Master of Philosophy

Recent proponents of non-Eurocentric approaches to the study of development in non-Western areas in the early modern period have seized on late imperial China (1368-1911) as an example of an indigenous trajectory of development that disputes the primacy of early modern Europe in some theories. The commercialization of Ming China (1368-1644) is sometimes appropriated in their arguments. But at times the term “commercialization” is not particularly well-defined in the case of sixteenth and seventeenth century China. In order to strengthen the arguments against Eurocentric assessments of non-Western development, this thesis covers some aspects of Ming commerce and society that are sometimes not captured by the term commercialization. In particular, it focuses on more ‘personal’ dimensions often neglected by references to the commercialization of China’s economy and society in the latter half of the Ming period. Aspects that will be discussed include: social change and social mobility, higher-ranking officials’ views of commerce and merchants, and the identity of merchants as seen in merchant manuals. The application of some recent research by other scholars of Ming China and my readings of some sources dating from the period, I hope, will add nuances to our understanding of Ming commerce and society and furthermore contribute to a detailed approach to the non-Eurocentric writing of a comparative history of development in the early modern world. / Thesis (Master, History) -- Queen's University, 2009-08-29 11:46:59.242

This thesis focuses on two early and middle Ming (1368-1580) artists and deals with the role of Chinese historiography in the perpetuation of the dichotomy between the so-called "professional" and the so-called "scholar-amateur" artist. While traditional Chinese historical and biographical sources are an invaluable tool for the sinologist, including the Chinese art historian, the convention adopted by Chinese historians of casting subjects into standard characterized roles has contributed to this dichotomy and resulted in the ongoing debate over the value of the professional artist in China. Historically, Chinese critics and collectors have made a distinction between professional and amateur artists. The traditional Chinese critical bias has been in favour of the scholar-amateur artist. In fact, in much critical literature there is a stigma attached to professionalism in painting. The major initial Western studies of Chinese painting represented a continuation of the traditional Chinese dichotomies. More recently, various kinds of positions have been taken up by Western scholars. James Cahill suggests that a correlation can be made between an artist's painting style and social and economic factors (such as lifestyle, formal training, means of livelihood, demands of patrons, and so on). Richard Barnhart instead defends the professional artist: He believes that Cahill perpetuates the bias in favour of the amateur artist, and that a correlation between an artist's style and social and economic factors is not useful, being too restrictive and general. Their debate was taken up in a series of letters, and this debate has continued down to the present. Some of the most recent Western interpretations attempt to try to break down the earlier dichotomies, and my research supports this interpretive trend. In this context the thesis examines the life and works of two relatively minor artists of the Ming dynasty, the "professional" artist Wu Wei (1459-1508) and the "scholar-amateur" artist Lu Zhi (1496-1576). I discuss the Chinese biographical tradition and have translated the appropriate texts and biographies. Then by examining the paintings themselves in the context of the two artists' environments — Wu Wei in Beijing and Nanjing and Lu Zhi in Suzhou — I show that both of these artists enjoyed the freedom of working in a wide variety of different painting traditions. Early and middle Ming painting criticism is also examined, in addition to the influence of Late Ming (1580-1644) painting criticism and its effect on our perception of Chinese artists. In terms of style, aesthetics, and intellectual outlook, Wu Wei and Lu Zhi may, at first, appear to stand at opposite poles. However, my study of the life circumstances of Wu Wei and Lu Zhi reveals that they share surprisingly similar backgrounds, concerns, and views on their artwork. In addition, an examination of the works of these two artists suggests that a greater fluidity of style and of subject matter existed in the early and middle Ming period than one would expect from the theories based on Late Ming criticism. In other words, the distinction between professional and scholar-amateur artists is overdrawn: Wu Wei and Lu Zhi do not fit neatly into the later understandings of accepted categories or roles, nor do their paintings entirely accord with the theories originating in the Late Ming Period. / Arts, Faculty of / Art History, Visual Art and Theory, Department of / Graduate

No description available.

published_or_final_version / Chinese / Doctoral / Doctor of Philosophy

published_or_final_version / Chinese / Doctoral / Doctor of Philosophy

published_or_final_version / Chinese / Master / Master of Philosophy

During a long and distinguished career, Hung Ch'eng-ch'ou (1593-1665) occupied a place of pivotal importance in events attending the collapse of native Ming rule and the founding of the Manchu (Ch'ing) conquest dynasty. His contributions to both regimes as a senior civil and military leader, hitherto virtually unstudied, merits close examination as a barometer of critical developments in that vital transitional era. Following several minor posts in the civil bureaucracy, Hung was sent to northwest China, then suffering from famine and spreading social disorder. There he became involved in anti-rebel campaigns, where his talents in civil and military affairs received due notice, subsequently leading to the command of the vital northeastern frontier district at a time of growing Manchu power. The corrupt, faction-ridden Ming government, unable to provide him with adequate support because of its own ineptitude and inertia, insisted over his objections that he take the offensive. Thus, in a decisive encounter at Sung-shan, Hung's armies were routed and he was captured by the victorious Manchus. Abahai, valuing him as a potential ally, induced him to switch sides, and thereafter Hung served his new master well and faithfully: as a trusted advisor in the early conquest phase, a knowledgeable expert in the forming of a Chinese-style central government, and the senior field commander in the conquest of south China. One of his most significant achievements during these years was the championing of traditional Chinese values. Another was his success in destroying the last vestiges of Ming imperial rule on the continent, in reinstituting the mechanisms of government, and in implementing rehabilitation programs in the conquered territories. And throughout, he enjoyed the consistent backing of his Manchu overlord. Because he served the Manchus, Ming loyalists regarded Hung as a traitor, as did later Confucian-minded Ch'ing emperors in their rewriting of history. A dispassionate examiniation of the historical record reveals, however, that Hung was a shrewd, vigorous, honest, and skillful administrator. Moreover, he was dedicated to the preservation of traditional cultural values and institutions, thus helping speed the process of Manchu sinification.

published_or_final_version / Chinese Historical Studies / Master / Master of Arts

The development of the xiao pin in the late Ming period (ca.1573-1644) could be explained by four reasons: the political background, the development of economy in the south, the new literary theories advocated and the social background changed. There are different forms of the xiao pin in the late Ming period, such as diaries, biographies, travel accounts, essays, etc.. Mostly they are short compositions, yet they can express the genuine feelings of the writers. The subject matters of the xiao pin in the late Ming period are mainly on natural scenery, interesting daily life, meaningless talking, the art of calligraphy and painting etc. in which the writers express their points of will different from the common people. The xiao pin in the late Ming period has a characteristic of “genuine”(真), “Charm”(韻), “Interesting”(趣) which calls for an interesting reading and thinking. Though scholars or readers have different assessments on the xiao pin in the late Ming period, yet, it unquestionably holds a place in the history of Chinese literature. To let readers understand the different contents and characteristic of xiao pin in the late Ming period, nine compositions concerned are selected and attached at the end of the thesis. / published_or_final_version / Chinese Language and Literature / Master / Master of Arts