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The purpose of this study has been to investigate as fully as possible the background and the developments ofthe hormic theory and its effective influence upon present day psychology. II. Historically, the hormic principle is traceableback to Plato and mainly to Aristotle. Philosophically, its roots cannot be isolated from Hobbes's and Locke's principleof Empirical Associationism, a principle based largely upon the premise that there are psychological laws which describewhat man would think, what he could know, and what he might do. Such a trend of thinking was to some extent confoundedwith Descartes mechanism which later McDougall decried on the ground that it does not account for the individual's freewill. III. With the advent of Darwin's theory of evolution (1859) the climate of thought in Britain was propitious f orthe new outlook and Psychology m particular profited tremendously from its novel interpretations. Seizing upon newconcepts implied in the evolutionary creed, McDougall efficiently introduced the hormically, motivational Psychology. IV, Unlike the mechanistic contentions, the dynamic hormic theory emphasises the nature of the organism's behaviour; i,e, nature endows the individual with a remarkable constitution which purposively produces or attempts to produce the right kind of behaviour and the appropriate type of mental attitude. Motivation therefore emerges from within and brain is the source of the intellect, of thinking, of ideas as well as it is the organ of motivation, Ethological and biological observations as well as modern Psychological techniques have favourably endorsed McDougall's hormic position, V, What gives the hormic theory supremacy over the rival ones is that it maintains a kaleidoscopic, voluntary explanation of behaviour and retains in its philosophy spirituality, rationality and the purposefulness of life. It has been found, besides other major characteristics, that in its present implications and psychological applications, the hormic theory has now experimental support, is viable and highly influential.

This qualitative study, within a constructivist paradigm, researches the experience of one cohort of trained counsellors in the Centre for Counselling Studies at the University of Durham. Person-Centred Expressive Therapy, as developed by Natalie Rogers, was introduced into a humanistic integrative course with a strong Person-Centred ethos. The literature search encompassed both counsellor training and the expressive arts. Data was collected through semi-structured individual interviews and a focus group and analysed thematically. A second set of data emerged from immediate audio-taped feedback and journal entries following three Expressive Therapy sessions. It was analysed thematically and presented as narrative, using an ethnographic approach of juxtaposing 'episodes' and 'positioning’. of counsellor training, including the experiential learning of theory.

This piece of research investigated representations of the concept of 'Personal Growth'through the discourses that emanated from the talk of three Counselling Psychologists as they moved from their final year of study into chartered status. Previous research in this area has highlighted the confusion between the terms 'Personal Growth' and 'Personal Development' (e.g. Irving and Williams, 1999; Donati and Wafts, 2005). The research and literature looking purely at the 'Personal Growth' dimension is limited to a humanistic framework and in particular Carl Rogers' conceptions of self-actualisation emanating from his person centred approach (Rogers, 1957; Gillon, 2007). In this research a novel longitudinal methodology was applied to Foucauldian Discourse Analysis, with participants taking part in semi-structured interviews at three time points over a one-year period. Eight discourses were identified, four of which related to traditional conceptions of personal growth: Rogerian, Psychodynamic, Cognitive-Developmental and Self- Reflection/Self-Knowledge and four of which were identified as subjugated discourses of personal growth: Postmodern, Discipline, Institutions and Entitlement discourses. The emergence of the subjugated discourses provides an alternative view, which represents 'personal growth' as being relational, contextual and historical, with traditional discourses being implicated in the oppression of already marginalised groups in society. The implications for the training and practice of Counselling Psychologists in terms of the 'personal growth' element are considered.

Purpose: The purpose of the research was two-fold: to determine the provision of religious and spirituality teaching within UK Clinical Psychology training courses and to explore the experiences of trainee clinical psychologists engagement with psycho-spiritual constructs in clinical practice. Method: Two studies were conducted. A preliminary survey involved a questionnaire survey of UK Doctorate in Clinical Psychology courses to determine the provision of religious and spiritual teaching currently provided. A qualitative study involved a semi-structured interview of third-year trainee clinical psychologists to explore their experiences of engaging in psycho-spiritual constructs in clinical practice. Results: Preliminary survey: Inconsistent findings were noted. Courses varied in the time allocated to religious and spirituality teaching, ranging from no teaching to two-and-half days over the three year course. Curriculum content also varied, with an inconsistency of opinion of what should be included in teaching. Qualitative study: Interviews were analysed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis. Five super-ordinate themes emerged; provision of religious and spirituality training, trajectory of clinical practice, locus of control, existential issues and personal religion and spirituality ideology. Conclusion: Whilst many studies support the integration of religion and spirituality in clinical practice (Post & Wade, 2009; Knox et al., 2005) to date, there is little change in the training of clinical psychologists. Recommendations are suggested to influence change at organisational, academic and clinical levels.

This thesis presents a sociological and historical analysis of the development of counselling in the United Kingdom over the period 1890-2010. It explores the origins, development and recognition of counselling and how counselling became enmeshed in the issues of professionalisation. The long perspective anchors counselling in the changing social, economic, cultural and political contexts; this is essential to understand the emerging role of counselling in the 20th and 21st centuries. Counselling has multiple pre-cursors, leading to incomplete boundary setting and inadequate definitions and therefore to weak jurisdictional claims. The thesis combines several theoretical concepts of professionalisation, in particular the concepts of jurisdictional systems of professions and the influence of patriarchy on professionalisation projects of female-dominated occupations. The combination of methodologies, documentary, interview, participative observation and case study with path dependency theory, is employed to explore the processes. The British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy (BACP, BAC up to 2000) provides a case study of the development of counselling and the processes of professionalisation. The thesis presents evidence that the model of professionalisation current in the United Kingdom is based on patriarchal assumptions and questions whether this is an appropriate model for counselling. The analysis identifies two self-reinforcing tendencies of inclusivity and self-effacement within BACP. These self-reinforcing tendencies have underpinned decisions, the unintended consequences of which have worked against the professionalisation of counselling. The status-seeking jurisdictional conflicts are set within the context of an insecure professional identity. The result has been to create and maintain this insecure professional identity.

Paedophilia has become a major social issue; although, there remains considerable ambiguity in how society understands and perceives this phenomenon. This thesis will investigate professionals' as well as trainee/non-professionals' implicit theories of paedophilia and their explanations for the current social outcry. This is an inter-disciplinary, mixed-design piece of research, using both qualitative and quantitative methods, with professionals' (n=28) and trainee/non-professionals' (study 1, n=601 study 2, n=188) respectively. Professional implicit theories of paedophilia were found to be fragmented with no unified definitions or understandings. Professionals' believe paedophilia to be a moral panic, caused by a number of factors (the media and changing perceptions of risk). Although, the professionals' do not believe that the general public have a good understanding of paedophilia, research with trainee/non-professionals' reveal that their implicit theories of paedophilia tend to be mixed, reflecting both, popular sensationalistic stereotypes and current professional understandings from this research as well previous research. Professionals' and trainee/non-professionals' implicit theories of paedophilia seem derived from socially constructed beliefs, not from psychological traits and/or individual differences.

There is evidence that personal continuity is associated with positive processes and outcomes, although much of the previous work has lacked a theoretical framework. This thesis aims to explore, and develop a model of, the relationship between continuity, trust and cooperation in primary care, based on existing principles from game theory. Hypotheses generated from a game theory perspective were tested through a questionnaire survey of 279 patients. A secondary qualitative analysis of two data sets – interviews with patients and GPs – was also carried out to explore experiences of trust and cooperation in primary care. The survey findings indicated that a history of positive interactions between a patient and a GP, and expectation of future interactions, were associated with higher trust, as was interpersonal care. Trust was found to be weakly associated with self-reported adherence to treatment. The analysis of patient interviews found that patients described relatively high levels of initial trust. Repeated interactions allowed initial trust in the GP to be validated, and allowed the patient to build their own reputation as cooperative. Over time, experience of consulting the same GP could lead to a reduction of uncertainty, and a move to a more stable, affective basis for trust. This was associated with increased willingness to disclose information, and to accept treatment or advice. Analysis of GP interviews explored GP views of patient trust, and identified mechanisms inherent in repeated interactions that could promote quality of care. The findings from the qualitative and quantitative work are drawn together in order to develop a model of trust and cooperation in primary care, informed by game theory principles. This thesis highlights the reciprocal and interdependent nature of the health professional-patient relationship, and the value of repeated interactions in promoting mutual trust and cooperation. The implications of this for policy are discussed.

This thesis reports the findings of research carried out as part of the programme: Observational research and classroom learning evaluation, based at Leicester University and the subsequent development and evaluation of in-service activities as part of a B.Ed. (Hons) in-service programme. The study addresses the following questions relating to the development of new forms of assessment. a) Can valid and reliable assessments of the performance of pupils be made in areas of the curriculum which are not amenable to measurement by standardised tests, by the provision of criteria for assessment in terms of observable pupil behaviours and structures classroom activities in which to observe these behaviours? b) Do teachers make valid and reliable assessments of pupil performance in areas of the curriculum not amenable to measurement by standardised tests? c) If teachers are unable to make valid and reliable assessments of pupils what are the factors contributing to their judgements of pupil performance in such areas? d) What is the relationship between pupil performance in those areas of the curriculum not assessed by standardised tests and other pupil characteristics such as age, sex, social class, attainment in basic skills, pupil type and teaching style? e) Does in-service education affect the quality of teachers’ assessments by the provision of appropriate information skills to facilitate assessment of pupil performance in areas other than those tested by standardised achievement tests? The results of the study indicate that the structured activities provided reasonably valid measures of pupil performance on study skills dimensions of questioning, sequencing, comprehension, originality and appropriateness. However, teachers’ assessments were found to be subject to a number of sources of invalidity. Pupil performance was also found to vary by sex and age on aspects of the structured activities and teaching style influences were noted. The study of in-service provision raised questions regarding the processes and outcomes of teacher professional learning in the current climate of accountability and advocacy of teacher self-evaluation.

Erich Fromm’s biophilia, a theory of personality development incorporating an interaction between existential needs and the socio-economic environment, was a significant element of Fromm’s proposed Analytic Social Psychology. Despite an enduring influence, Fromm’s theory of biophilia has been largely untested in the literature. Fromm argued that biophilia was the optimum way to conceptualise malignant aggression, and that the introduction and reward of cooperation was the best way to increase levels of biophilia, and thereby reduce levels of destructive behaviour in a population. It was the aim of this thesis to investigate whether the introduction and reward of cooperation would increase biophilia, and decrease aggression, in a population. In Studies One to Six, a trait biophilia scale was developed and psychometric validity and reliability established. In Studies Seven to Nine, scale predictive validity in comparison to existing trait measures was investigated in theoretically appropriate areas including online behaviour, positive psychology and pro-environmental behaviour. In Study Ten, a game theory paradigm for introducing and rewarding cooperation was developed, and the relationships among biophilia, cooperation and aggression were investigated. Contrary to Fromm’s theory, a positive association between aggression and cooperation, and negative associations between those and biophilia, were found. In addition, the effects of introducing and rewarding cooperation were investigated, and again contrary to Fromm’s theory, introducing and rewarding cooperation produced an increase in aggression and a reduction in biophilia. These findings may reflect an inherent tension within Fromm’s theory between the use of existential needs, that were argued to be the product of competitive natural selection, and the use of cooperative interventions derived from Marxist theory. It is proposed that the relationships among biophilia, cooperation and aggression may be mediated by frustration. Implications for interventions and future research are discussed.