This thesis explores how we might think the relation between psychoanalysis and the cultural field through Donald Winnicott's concept of the environment, seeking to bring the concept into dialogue with more “classical” strands of psychoanalytic theorizing. A substantial introduction sets out the rationale behind the thesis by reading Freud and Winnicott in relation to the “classic” and the “romantic” (Strenger 1989), or the “negative” and “positive” (Rustin 2001), in psychoanalytic thought. It goes on to outline the value of bringing these tendencies together in order to think the relationship between psychoanalysis, culture and change. The chapters which follow move from psychoanalysis as a “cultural cure” – a method and discourse drawing on and feeding into a broad conception of cultural life – towards a notion of “culture as cure” informed by Winnicott's theory of the environment. Chapter one examines Freud's refusal of the “culture”/ “civilization” distinction and considers what it means for the idea of a cultural cure. Chapter two considers whether Winnicott's thinking about “culture” ultimately prioritises the aesthetic over the political. Chapter three uses Aldous Huxley's Brave New World ([1932] 1994) to explore an analogy between totalitarianism, technology and maternal care. Chapter four turns to the series In Treatment (HBO 2008-) to think about the intersections of therapy and technology in terms of reflection and recognition. Chapter five employs Ian McEwan's Saturday (2005) as a means to reflect on the capacity of culture to cure. Ultimately, I suggest that social “cure” may require more than “good-enough” cultural forms and objects, but Winnicott's “romantic” theorization of the aesthetic, coupled with a “classic” attention to structures of power and oppression may offer a means of thinking the relationship between psychoanalysis and culture in potentially transformative ways.

Previous research employing modulation of 5-HT2C receptors (5-HT2CRs) in rodents has identified a potential role in mediating cognitive flexibility. The work presented in this thesis explores the effects of systemic administration of the selective 5-HT2CR antagonist SB242084 on a range of Pavlovian and operant learning paradigms used to model cognitive flexibility and reward-based learning in mice. Based on a key design difference in previous research reporting discrepant outcomes, trial initiation requirements were manipulated. However the effect of SB242084 administration relative to vehicle-treatment was consistent with prior reports of impaired reversal performance following reductions in 5-HT2CR activity, regardless of whether trials were automatically or self-initiated. In contrast, performance on a probabilistic reversal learning task was enhanced by drug-treatment, raising the possibility that task difficulty mediates the effect of this manipulation on performance. A drug-related enhancement in the ability to overcome learned non-reward at the previously incorrect location was additionally demonstrated under probabilistic reversal conditions, with no effect on perseverance at the previously correct location. However, performance of drug-treated animals in two closely related tasks demonstrated impaired extinction learning but intact development of latent inhibition to a pre-exposed stimulus. The effect of SB242084 on incentive motivation was additionally explored, but did not impact upon the acquisition of a sign-tracking response to a conditioned stimulus, or a subsequent reversal; suggesting that 5-HT2CRs may be more critically involved in instrumental than Pavlovian learning. These experiments reveal a complex picture for the involvement of 5-HT2CRs in flexible cognition, however, systemic manipulations may not be optimal for dissecting their role. Therefore, a final study explored the expression of c-Fos immunoreactivity in response to reversal learning. A broad network was activated by elements of the reversal task, including regions of the prefrontal cortex and amygdala, providing a basis for future studies targeting components of this circuitry.

Within classical economics, an agent is deemed “rational” if their preferences are both consistent and maximize utility of positive, subjective experience. Violations from this norm may occur as a result of utility devaluation (proceeding from risk or delay) or when an imbalance occurs between ‘liking' and ‘wanting'. The current studies investigate how changes in reward-contingencies, delay before reward receipt, and reinforcer devaluation contribute to such utility-based decision-making in human and rodent models. I examined the effects of devaluation through pre-exposure and outcome-contingency on the development and maintenance of sign- and goal-tracking responses in rats (chapter three) and humans (chapter four). Chapter four presents a novel, translational, eye-tracking procedure and correlates of such behaviour, including trait-impulsivity and discounting performance. In chapter five I presented probability- and temporal discounting using a mouse model, exploring the consequences of satiety-based devaluation, and changes in outcome-contingencies- and delays. In Chapter six I presented the same factors in a human sample using a novel laboratory-based procedure and sought to explore the impact of trait and state impulsivity and correlates of rapid discounting. Finally, in chapter seven I considered the relationship between trait impulsivity, alcohol use, smoking and discounting behaviour using a more conventional online questionnaire. The results represent some of the first to present probability discounting using a mouse model and characterisation of reliable sign- and goal-tracking performance in humans. The results of the latter studies broadly support previous findings in rats showing that lowered reward contingency diminishes goal-oriented, but enhances sign-oriented, responding. Chapter six establishes a human equivalent to rodent discounting paradigms through implicit learning that will allow future controlled studies in humans. Finally, chapter seven presents evidence for an association between delay discounting and trait impulsivity. The results of these studies support the assertion that irrational decision-making arises, in part, from changes in reward utility as a function of delay, probability, devaluation and individual differences. Furthermore the translational-homologous models presented allow for future biopsychological research into mechanisms underlying such behaviours.

This research constitutes an investigation of unconscious interaction between patient and analyst in situations where psyche and soma are in relation. The literature is extensive, but not coherent, and there exists a need for an overall mapping of the field. The project aims to establish a conceptual topography, grounded in Jung’s psychoid concept, since this applies to a deeply unconscious realm that is neither physiological nor psychological but that partakes of both. A methodology based on the conceptual research of Dreher (2000) is employed, including: a historical study tracing the evolution of Jung’s ideas, from their biological origins in the work of Driesch (1903) and Bleuler (1929), through Jung’s own self-investigation in his Red Book work, to his subsequent theoretical conceptualisations, to establish a public definition for the psychoid concept; and an empirical study, based on expert interviews, to interrogate this definition. The empirical study employs a methodological instrument, developed for this research, for identifying clinicians’ private theories relating to psycho-physical experience. Such instrument comprises the process notes for a single session, in which the psychic fact and the physical fact are combined, and a set of discussion vertices, derived from Sandler (1983), Canestri (2006) and Tuckett (2008), for guiding the interview. The empirical data, constituting the transcripts of the interviews, not the process notes, is analysed using grounded theory. Comparisons from psychoanalysis are employed at all stages of both studies. The results demonstrate that the psychoid concept is valid and clinically useful. The empirical study establishes that clinicians support contrasting views of the transference, namely a symmetrical and mutual transference and an asymmetrical and hierarchical transference, the former being consistent with Jung’s psychoid concept. Unexpectedly, not only Jungians but also some psychoanalysts conceptualised a symmetrical transference, albeit employing different terminology. This adds Popperian weight to the research results.

The aim of this research is to explore the unconscious elements that fuels the ‘radioactive atmosphere’ of psychoanalytic institutions - unconscious sources of the chronic conflicts that sometimes plague the relationships between members of psychoanalytical societies and obscure the path of a constructive resolution of conflict that leads to progress and further development. The starting point of this thesis was Hinshelwood’s (1999) idea about the displacement of negative countertransference feelings from patients to colleagues as a source of tensions amongst analysts. The first part of the thesis (Chapters 1-4) explores the development of the ideas on countertransference and its uses for a better understanding of ‘the patient’, surveys different perspectives on the life in psychoanalytic organizations, and points to the existence of a link between analysts’ analytic attitude towards patients and their attitude towards colleagues. The second part of the thesis presents the empirical study set to test the correspondence between the analyst’s omniscient attitude towards patient and arrogant attitude towards colleagues (Chapter 6). The preliminary findings indicates that ‘sibling rivalry’ and complicated relations during training as one source of conflict in psychoanalytic institutions, and are further investigated in the empirical research presented in Chapter 7, using the psychoanalytically informed research interview as an experimental situation, an original research method. The final chapter examines the main findings of this empirical research.

Spirituality at work has received much interest in recent years, and a stream of research notes its benefits beyond a trend. Despite the topic’s growing recognition, the research community raised the need for the integration of spirituality at work with traditional areas of investigation (Giacalone & Jurkiewicz, 2003). A potentially fruitful first step towards this involves use of person-organisation (PO) fit theory (Ashforth & Pratt, 2003; Sheep, 2004, 2006; Singhal & Chatterjee, 2006; Singhal, 2007). The purpose of this study is to build upon initial attempts towards this integration and to promote further acknowledgement of the potential benefits of incorporating spirituality at work into wider organisational psychology frameworks. This was achieved by integrating both PO fit and transpersonal psychology, and subsequently developing a theoretical model that investigates three questions: a) what antecedents lead individuals and organisations to seek spirituality at work?, b) what are the perceived spiritual preferences (needs) of individuals and how are those preferences fulfilled through the context of the workplace (supplies)?, and c) what are the consequences of meeting spiritual preferences (needs), as perceived by individuals? Using constructivist grounded theory, analysis of interview data from thirty-four participants located in organisations (one spiritual and three non-spiritual) across The Netherlands, Ireland, the United Kingdom and Portugal led to a theory in which I propose a core category of reconciling self as a critical factor of spirituality at work. Reconciling self captures the process whereby the self consistently attempts to maintain a congruent relationship with the ego and the environment, and this construct emerged as the primary concern for participants. Reconciling self was influenced largely by meaning and purpose and the need to connect to something larger than oneself, and through the organisation making a difference. The congruence or perceived fit within the workplace was captured through the action strategy conscious reconciling experiences; in the case where the immediacy of such expression was compromised, reconciling self was noted through the action strategy active adjustment. The action strategies were influenced through a set of intervening conditions that included a set of spirituality at work needs and supplies, through a context that emphasised attributes such as spiritual values, a culture that focused on openness and support, and relational leadership. The consequences of spirituality at work included benefits such as individual job satisfaction, positivity and self-realisation, and organisational outcomes as being a force for good and fostering employee commitment. The contribution of this study includes a new theoretical model concerning why, when, and how spirituality at work influences individual and organisational processes and outcomes. Such understanding contributes to better understanding of spirituality at work, and identifies ways in which PO fit occurs within a broader psychological context than that proposed in mainstream organisational psychology (i.e. through reconciling self influenced by meaning and purpose, the need to connect to something larger than oneself, and a set of spirituality at work needs). These findings reduce the PO fit gap. Implications of the study include the findings that spirituality at work creates positive outcomes, and insistence on the role of connecting to something larger than oneself implies individuals are always in the process of moving toward reconciling self. Organisations should consider their ability to harness latent human potential and transcendence by extending self-boundaries and developing the self. Limitations and future research directions are discussed.

Despite Jung’s frequent claims that one’s moral and ethical stance play an important role both in the development and in the cure of neurosis, Jung’s ethical position had not been subjected to a critical assessment and the main sources of his ethical outlook had not been investigated. I take my point of departure in Jung’s definition of ethics as involving both consciousness and the unconscious. In the first chapter, Kant’s argument for the primacy of practical reason is shown to ground Jung’s conviction of the decisive freedom of the ego. Jung’s insistence on the importance of the moral development of both patient and therapist is also related to Kant’s call for moral independence. Having elucidated Jung’s understanding of conflicts of duty – the existence of which was denied by Kant – I discuss Jung’s Nietzschean legacy. I argue that Jung derives the crucial distinction between ethics and morality from Nietzsche, as well as the idea that ethics must consider the irrational and unintentional side of the Self; I also consider how Jung’s application of the ‘health criterion’ to ethics differs from Nietzsche’s utilisation of the same device. In Chapter 3, I highlight the critical convergence between Aristotle’s approach to ethics and Jung’s psycho-ethical paradigm: while both stress the importance of acquiring a balance between reason and the passions and place wisdom at centre stage, Jung adds that psychotherapy can successfully integrate ‘unconscious vice’. In the fourth chapter, I examine the (heterodox) Christian side of Jung’s ethics. Here I assess the role played by the psychologically ‘heavy’ notion of evil in Jung’s model and analyse the often-misunderstood link between evil and the Shadow. In Jung’s psychology, the individuated subject is the ethical subject, so depth psychology and ethics converge towards the same goal and can be mutually supportive endeavours.

Using the theoretical approach of discursive psychology, this thesis examines the interactive uses of mental state talk, in particular the term want , in everyday family interaction. In mainstream cognitive psychology mental state terms are examined as words which signify internal referents. How individuals come to competently participate in social interaction is formulated as a problem of how individual, isolated minds come to understand the contents of other minds. This thesis challenges these individualistic notions and examines notions of wanting as interactionally managed participants concerns. The data are taken from two sources; a set of video recordings taken from a series of fly-on-the-wall documentary programmes which each focus on a particular family and videotapes of mealtimes recorded by three families. Recordings were initially transcribed verbatim and sections related to the emerging themes within the thesis were subsequently transcribed using the Jefferson notation system. These transcripts were then analysed, alongside repeated viewings of the video recordings. The thesis considers a range of analytic themes, which are interlinked via one of the primary research questions, which has been to examine how, and to what end, speakers routinely deploy notions of wanting in everyday talk-in-interaction. A major theme has been to highlight inherent problems with work in social cognition which uses experimental tasks to examine children s Theory of Mind and understanding of desires . I argue that the assumptions of this work are a gross simplification of the meaning wanting for both children and adults. A further theme has been to examine the sequential organisation of directives and requests in both adults and children s talk. Finally, I examine speakers practices for rejecting a proposal regarding their actions and for denying a formulation of their motivations by a co-interactant. The conclusions of the thesis show that expressions of wanting are practical expressions which work within a flow of interactional and deontic considerations and that making claims regarding one s own or others wants is entirely a social matter. I argue that rather than being examined for what they may reveal about the mind , mental state terms may be fruitfully examined as interactional matters.

Csikszentmihalyi's (1975b) 'flow' theory has been extensively developed and utilised, providing the leading explanation for positive subjective experiences in the study of leisure. The prescriptive tenets along with the archetypal descriptive characteristics of the flow state have been well documented. What is less explicit, however, is what occurs within experience in the instances immediately prior to the onset of flow and those immediately following: in what the author has come to term as pre-flow and post-flow experience (Elkington, 2006 and 2007). This research approaches the dearth of knowledge concerning pre- and post-flow experience from the perspective of existential-phenomenological psychology with the aim of bringing clarity to the experiential, conceptual, and theoretical uncertainty surrounding what goes before and after a state of flow and with it a more complete and holistic understanding of flow experience. The research explores the intricacies of flow experiences of participants from one activity characteristic of each of Stebbins' (2007a) amateur, hobbyist, and career volunteer serious leisure categories, namely: amateur actors, hobbyist table tennis players, and volunteer sports coaches. Using narrative meaning as an interpretative tool to generate descriptions of the specific experiential situations and action sequences that comprise pre- and post-flow produced a single representative narrative of pre- and post-flow experience, and the first empirical insights into the phenomenology of such phases of experience. Examining flow in the context of serious leisure has revealed there to be significantly more to the act of experiencing flow than depicted in Csikszentmihalyi's (1975b) original framework, re-conceptualising flow as a focal state of mind in a broader experience-process model comprising distinct, intricate, and highly-personalised phases of pre-flow, flow-in-action, and post-flow experience. Combining flow and serious leisure has evoked the affinity of serious leisure activity for flow experience and the discovery that serious leisure and flow are not two disparate frameworks, but are structurally and experientially 'mutually reinforcing' of one another, revealing an explanatory framework of optimal leisure experience. The newly-emerged process view of flow was used to provide insights into the phenomenology of flow in serious leisure, adding to the explanatory capacity of Stebbins' serious leisure theoretical framework. Conflating flow and serious leisure in this way provides for significant and exciting opportunities for knowledge transfer between these two established leisure-related frameworks and signifies new vistas for future research in both fields.

Workplace mediation services are committed to developing strategies that help people resolve conflict. In its various intrapsychic and psychosocial guises conflict is central to psychoanalytic theory and practice, but within the current literature there are no qualitative workplace mediation studies explicitly drawing on psychoanalytic/systems psychodynamic theory and thinking. In this way, the dynamic unconscious is effectively marginalised from the mediation research literature. This research adopts a case study approach, and reports the findings of a mixed methods mediation service review undertaken in an N.H.S. Trust. All research participants experienced significant conflict in the workplace, or were directly involved in addressing the antecedents, management and/or consequences associated with collegial and organisational dispute. 27 current N.H.S employees, selected by the mediation service lead, were invited to participate, with 15 proceeding to interview. All 15 participants contribute towards the service review data, whilst 6 of these interviews are used to specifically underpin psychoanalytic/systems psychodynamic analysis. The study methodology incorporates analytically informed negative capability and the Free Association Narrative Interviewing (F.A.N.I.) and analysis methods of Holloway & Jefferson (2012). An emphasis is placed working with the whole data according to the principles of gestalt, including the inter-subjective dynamics of the interview encounter itself, and analytical concepts such as counter-transference, splitting and projective identification. Many of the skills needed to work successfully as a psychoanalytic mediator are illustrated. The study also presents a summative content analysis of Trust board minutes Dec.2012 - Dec. 2015 to establish the representation of organisational conflict and mediation at the most senior levels of the organisation. A discrepancy between the reported prevalence of organisational conflict and its representation at board level is evident. The study links the service review findings to recommendations for the N.H.S. Trust at the level of policy and practice, alongside suggestions for further research.