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This thesis builds on three guiding hypotheses. Firstly, that the capacity for age appropriate play provides a valid and robust medium for the assessment of a child's current levels of developmental maturation. The second, that the trajectory of physical, emotional, social and cognitive development, while retaining their specific features, is nevertheless interlinked and mutually influential in a dynamic and unceasing process with human behaviour being a composite of this complex, ongoing interaction. The third hypothesis was that delay or dysfunction could be potentially 'signposted' at an earlier phase of development through such a holistic approach supported by skilled assessment and observation. This study therefore incorporates an analysis of an empirical, observational study of a play situation with two groups of young people. Their approach and capacity for play was examined and evaluated in the light of research information on the potential role of play in development within a context of age appropriate expectations. The poverty of their play led to consideration of the potential precursors to the variations in play at different ages and led to the exploration of three possibilities. These were whether a) a unified perspective of development would provide a more indepth method of evaluating developmental progress overall; b) early identification of delay or dysfunction could be better ascertained by the application of such a holistic appraisal in the assessment of development and c) to explore further the possibility that play is a robust medium for such developmental appraisal. The first possibility was explored via a theoretical synthesis of research findings from a range of sources. A focus age range of 7-12 months was chosen for this exploration because of its identification as an important phase in overall development. The second possibility invited the reexamination of current surveillance of this age range which led to the design of an alternative protocol for assessing the normality and age related achievements of these infants which incorporated the third possibility as observation and play is the context for this assessment. Health visitors were the identified practitioners of choice because of their unique role in surveillance of growing infants. This work has therefore provided the framework for considering development through a more holistic lens and has lent support to the hypotheses, i.e. that assessments which are based on an integrated view of development and incorporate play based activities are potentially highly sensitive and informative of levels of maturation. Finally it is suggested that this style of assessment supports the implementation and application of theoretical information in practice for those professionals working in early years.

The first section of this thesis reviews research on maternal mood and infant development and concludes that associations between maternal mood and infant development exist. The review identifies a number of limitations to the existing literature, including the potential confound of measuring infant behaviour only when in interaction with their mother. Whilst studies on social and emotional development included the mother in the assessment of infant behaviour, studies on cognitive development benefited from assessing infant behaviour without their mother. However, within this area of infant cognition very little research interest was directed towards young infants, and in particular early perceptual abilities, therefore this represented an area requiring further research. To address this gap in the literature, a study of early infant perceptual interest was conducted in relation to maternal mood and bonding. Perceptual interest in the mother's face was selected as this has received considerable attention in the general developmental literature, but not previously in relation to maternal mood. The motherface has been clearly shown to be of interest to the young infant. This thesis finds that maternal mood is associated with 3-month-old infant's interest in their mother's face, with reduced interest shown by infants' whose mothers show mood symptoms. Maternal anxiety and depression scores were found to predict infant interest in their mother's face, however no associations were found with bonding, suggesting that bonding was not a mediating factor. The clinical and theoretical implications of the associations are discussed.

Imitation research has made a significant contribution to our understanding of maturational changes in infant learning and memory (Hayne, 2004). However, surprisingly little is known about the role of the model, and interactions between infant and model, for encoding and retention in imitation procedures. This thesis provides a systematic investigation of how learning and memory are influenced by social cues infants encounter inside and outside the experimental situation. The present studies revealed that familiarity with a model impacts on 6-month-olds' imitative learning. In Experiments 1-2, infants were more likely to learn from a familiar model than from an unfamiliar model when tested in a familiar (home) environment. In an unfamiliar (laboratory) environment, learning was more likely to occur if the model was unfamiliar rather than familiar. By 9 months, infants showed equal levels of learning from familiar and unfamiliar models in an unfamiliar environment (Experiment 3). Experiments 4-5 demonstrated that I8-month-olds' learning was not influenced by model familiarity, even in a difficult imitation task (i.e., learning from televised demonstrations). Instead, learning was enhanced by the provision of language cues and by a training procedure that taught infants to perceive the televised model as a valuable source of real-world information. Finally, Experiments 6-7 investigated the effect of similarity with a model, rather than familiarity, on \5- and 24-month-olds' imitation. In Experiment 6, there was a shift from an adult- to a peer-model advantage: Increased age and exposure to same-aged infants augmented imitation from the peer model. No differences in learning from peers and adults were observed in Experiment 7 when the demonstrations were accompanied by language cues. This research revealed that infants become increasingly proficient in using social cues for learning and remembering. Furthermore, the relative effectiveness of different cues depends on the infants' developmental niche at the time of test.

Introduction: A growing number of studies have found differences between boys' and girls' preferences for sex-typed toys during infancy. Toy preferences have been explained using biological, social and cognitive theories. More recently, focus has turned towards the low-level properties of toys that boys and girls find attractive. The present study was designed to assess the relationship between toy preference and toy colour, as well as to examine sex differences in infants' preferences for colour and shape. In addition, sex differences in the colours of infants' home environments, and in the colour and type of infants' toys, were examined. Method: A total of 120 infants aged 12, 18 or 24 months took part in the study, with 20 males and 20 females in each age group. Colour, toy and shape preference were assessed using the preferential looking task, whereby two images were presented to each infant simultaneously and the infant's gaze was recorded onto videotape. These tapes were later coded to determine the length of time the infant looked at each image. In addition, parental interviews were conducted to obtain data about the colour of infants' home environments and their toy preferences. Results: Sex and age differences in visual preferences for toys were found when the brightness of pink and blue were controlled. Boys looked longer at the car than girls and girls looked longer at the doll than boys. This preference for sex-typed toys was greatest when the infants looked at a same-sex-typed toy coloured in a same-sextyped colour. Despite this overall sex difference, 12-month-olds, irrespective of their sex, looked at the doll more than the car. Infants were not found to show any sex differences in their visual preference for pink versus blue or for angular versus rounded shapes. Sex differences were not found in the colour of infants' bedrooms, bedcovers or bedroom curtains but sex differences were found in the colours of infant playrooms and clothing. With regard to reported toy play, boys played with more vehicles than girls, and girls played with more dolls than boys. A positive relationship was found between infants' reported play with vehicles and their looking time at the car on the preferential looking task. Conclusions: Infants as young as 18 and 24 months show sex-typed visual preferences for toys which are strengthened when the toys are coloured in same sextyped colours. Sex differences in shape preference and colour preference were not found in the present study. Instead, boys and girls were found to be similar in their preference for rounded shapes over angular shapes, and for red over blue.

Dans le cadre d’une action de prévention primaire en périnatalité, ce travail de thèse vise à démontrer les effets d’un accompagnement psychologique auprès du bébé et de sa famille. En France, dans le Lunévillois (département de Meurthe-et-Moselle), la fréquence des retards de langage chez les enfants de 4 ans est particulièrement élevée et reflète la réalité socioéconomique et culturelle qui caractérise ce territoire. En réponse aux besoins manifestes de ce secteur, la Pédopsychiatrie en lien avec la Protection Maternelle et Infantile a développé une recherche-action de prévention en périnatalité, dans le cadre du projet « Interrégional IV-A-Programme transfrontalier de Prévention et de Promotion de la Sante Mentale ». L’objectif était de mettre en place auprès des familles un accompagnement psychologique régulier, à domicile, pendant les deux premières années de vie du bébé et d’observer les effets de cette action dans trois domaines : le vécu de la parentalité, les interactions précoces et le développement de l’enfant. Le travail de thèse a permis d’analyser les observations recueillies dans le cadre de l’action de terrain auprès des familles. L’évaluation s’appuie sur un recueil de données longitudinales qualitatives et quantitatives (n=49) avec comparaison à une population témoin (n=42). Les résultats comparatifs montrent que les enfants qui ont bénéficié de la recherche-action ne présentent pas, à deux ans, le retard de langage observé dans la population témoin et d’une façon générale, ils font preuve d’un meilleur développement psychomoteur. L’accompagnement a permis de réduire l’impact de différents facteurs de risque sur le développement de l’enfant : la prématurité, l’absence de mode de garde extérieur et le manque d’investissement du père. Les résultats longitudinaux mettent en valeur les liens forts entre les interactions affectives, la construction progressive de la parentalité et le développement de l’enfant, entre la naissance et deux ans. Ils permettent de souligner les effets de l’accompagnement, de l’observation conjointe du bébé et de l’écoute empathique, sur l’ensemble de ce système, notamment dans les situations de dépression du post-partum, de vécu traumatique de la naissance ou de pathologie de la carence. L’adhésion forte au projet, le faible taux d’abandon et le vécu positif de l’accompagnement, indiquent la grande sensibilité des familles à cette forme d’action périnatale orientée vers le « prendre soin ». / As part of an early perinatal prevention action, this thesis aims to demonstrate the effects of counseling with the baby and its family. In France, in the Lunévillois (Meurthe-et-Moselle), the frequency of language delay in 4-year-old children is particularly high and reflects the socioeconomic and cultural reality thatcharacterizes this territory. In response to the obvious needs of this sector, the Child Psychiatry in connectionwith the Mother and Child Protection services has developed an action-research program of perinatal prevention,in the framework of the "Inter-regional IV A Programme for Prevention and Promotion of Mental health ".Theaim was to establish regular counseling with families at their home during the first two years of life of the baby,and to observe the effects of that action in three areas: the experience of parenting, early interactions anddevelopment of the child. The thesis has analyzed the observations collected during the field work with families.The evaluation is based on a collection of qualitative and quantitative longitudinal data (n = 49) compared with acontrol population (n = 42).The comparative results show that children who have benefited from the actionresearchdo not have, at the age of two, the language delay observed in the control population and in general theyshow a better psychomotor development. The support has made it possible to reduce the impact of various riskfactors on child development: prematurity, lack of outside care arrangements and lack of father investment. Thelongitudinal results highlight the strong links between the emotional interaction, the progressive construction ofparenting and child development, in infants up to two years of age. They serve to highlight the effects ofcounseling, of the joint observation of the baby and of empathic listening on the whole system, particularly in thepostpartum depression, situations of traumatic experience of birth or emotional deprivation. The strong supportfor the project, the low dropout rate and the positive experience of counseling, indicate the high sensitivity of thefamilies to this form of perinatal action aimed at "taking care".

Intellectual stimulation of young children is crucial, because it helps to break the cycle of poverty by giving each child the skills needed to reach his or her maximum potential. There is a growing need for more extensive early childhood development programmes in South Africa. Several studies in early childhood development have been shown to directly draw a parallel with enhanced student achievement at school and in life (Ackerman, 2005; Bueno, Darling-Hammond, & Gonzales 2010; Frede, Jung, Barnett, & Figueras, 2009). This study therefore explored the effects of an intervention programme introducing numbers, shapes and colours to infants between the ages of three months and 12 months. The sample consisted of 63 infants, with a control group of 34 and an experimental group of 29. The participants were selected from the middle-income group and consisted of infants from three different ethnic groups (black, white and coloured). Nine participants from the experimental group formed part of the focus group, which met every two weeks to give feedback and discuss the development of the infants and experiences of the parents involved in the intervention programme. In this study quantitative and qualitative data was collected. This data was assessed and analysed in order to achieve the four aims of the research study. The Bayley Scales of Infant Development (III) was used to assess three areas of development, namely cognitive ability, language skills and motor skills for the quantitative part of the study. The adaptive behaviour and social-emotional functioning of the infants was also assessed using the BSID (III), and this data was used in conjunction with the focus group feedback and problem-solving scenarios for the qualitative part of the study. Gender and the two age categories (3–7 and 8–12 months) for both the experimental and the control groups were examined and excluded from possible explanations for any significant findings. It was also determined that the control and experimental groups were well matched at the start of the intervention programme. The findings for aim A, the pre-test and post- test results showed that an average of 60 days involved in intervention programme had a statistically significant effect (z = -4.32, p < 0.001) on the cognitive ability of the infants. The findings for aim B, for the comparison between the control and experimental groups after the intervention programme, indicated significant results for the cognitive subscale (U = 732, p < 0.01, r = 0.42). Although the language and motor scores showed an increase in the descriptive statistics for the experimental group after the intervention, the Mann-Whitney U test did not show a significant difference. The findings for the qualitative study for aim C revealed that there was no effect on the adaptive behaviour of the infants. The findings for the social-emotional scales descriptive statistics for the qualitative study in aim D showed that there was a fairly large increase in the composite score means of the experimental group in comparison with the control group. The large increase in results complements the social-emotional functioning theme that emerged from the focus group. Three main themes emerged from the focus group, namely the cognitive ability, communication skills and social-emotional functioning of the infants.The increase in the social-emotional scale for the intervention group and the increase in the cognitive scale as mentioned in aim B were interrelated. These early social-emotional experiences are linked to long-term positive outcomes in both the social and cognitive areas of development (Landry, Smith, Swank, & Miller-Loncar, 2000). The parents all reported the ability to interpret the communication from their infants when participating in the flashcard sessions. This communication forms a foundation for establishing language development. Relationships between an infant’s nonverbal communication skills and subsequent language development have been reported (Brooks & Meltzoff, 2005). The problem-solving scenarios that were assessed during the second assessment showed that the infants who participated in the intervention programme were able to correctly identify a flashcard 73% of the time in comparison with the control group who were only able to identify a flashcard 1.4% correctly. The results of the study show that an early intervention programme has the potential to increase an infant’s cognitive ability and enhance his or her social-emotional functioning. However, the long-term impact of these findings would have to be explored in a longitudinal study. / Psychology / M.A. (Psychology)

Intellectual stimulation of young children is crucial, because it helps to break the cycle of poverty by giving each child the skills needed to reach his or her maximum potential. There is a growing need for more extensive early childhood development programmes in South Africa. Several studies in early childhood development have been shown to directly draw a parallel with enhanced student achievement at school and in life (Ackerman, 2005; Bueno, Darling-Hammond, & Gonzales 2010; Frede, Jung, Barnett, & Figueras, 2009). This study therefore explored the effects of an intervention programme introducing numbers, shapes and colours to infants between the ages of three months and 12 months. The sample consisted of 63 infants, with a control group of 34 and an experimental group of 29. The participants were selected from the middle-income group and consisted of infants from three different ethnic groups (black, white and coloured). Nine participants from the experimental group formed part of the focus group, which met every two weeks to give feedback and discuss the development of the infants and experiences of the parents involved in the intervention programme. In this study quantitative and qualitative data was collected. This data was assessed and analysed in order to achieve the four aims of the research study. The Bayley Scales of Infant Development (III) was used to assess three areas of development, namely cognitive ability, language skills and motor skills for the quantitative part of the study. The adaptive behaviour and social-emotional functioning of the infants was also assessed using the BSID (III), and this data was used in conjunction with the focus group feedback and problem-solving scenarios for the qualitative part of the study. Gender and the two age categories (3–7 and 8–12 months) for both the experimental and the control groups were examined and excluded from possible explanations for any significant findings. It was also determined that the control and experimental groups were well matched at the start of the intervention programme. The findings for aim A, the pre-test and post- test results showed that an average of 60 days involved in intervention programme had a statistically significant effect (z = -4.32, p < 0.001) on the cognitive ability of the infants. The findings for aim B, for the comparison between the control and experimental groups after the intervention programme, indicated significant results for the cognitive subscale (U = 732, p < 0.01, r = 0.42). Although the language and motor scores showed an increase in the descriptive statistics for the experimental group after the intervention, the Mann-Whitney U test did not show a significant difference. The findings for the qualitative study for aim C revealed that there was no effect on the adaptive behaviour of the infants. The findings for the social-emotional scales descriptive statistics for the qualitative study in aim D showed that there was a fairly large increase in the composite score means of the experimental group in comparison with the control group. The large increase in results complements the social-emotional functioning theme that emerged from the focus group. Three main themes emerged from the focus group, namely the cognitive ability, communication skills and social-emotional functioning of the infants.The increase in the social-emotional scale for the intervention group and the increase in the cognitive scale as mentioned in aim B were interrelated. These early social-emotional experiences are linked to long-term positive outcomes in both the social and cognitive areas of development (Landry, Smith, Swank, & Miller-Loncar, 2000). The parents all reported the ability to interpret the communication from their infants when participating in the flashcard sessions. This communication forms a foundation for establishing language development. Relationships between an infant’s nonverbal communication skills and subsequent language development have been reported (Brooks & Meltzoff, 2005). The problem-solving scenarios that were assessed during the second assessment showed that the infants who participated in the intervention programme were able to correctly identify a flashcard 73% of the time in comparison with the control group who were only able to identify a flashcard 1.4% correctly. The results of the study show that an early intervention programme has the potential to increase an infant’s cognitive ability and enhance his or her social-emotional functioning. However, the long-term impact of these findings would have to be explored in a longitudinal study. / Psychology / M.A. (Psychology)

Thesis (M.A. (Clinical Psychology)) --University of Limpopo, 2007 / The study explored transitional object attachment at Eisleben Village, Limpopo –South Africa. The participants of the study were mothers of children who were between six months and two years of age. The instrument t used to explore transitional object attachment was obtained from a related study, while the instrument used to study the participants personality were the Adult Attachment Questionnaire and the Relationship Questionnaire. There was low prevalence of transitional object attachment at Eisleben Village. Several factors had an impact on whether or not the child becomes attached to an object, i.e. the socio economic status of the participants as well as the child rearing practices.

Contexte : le travail réalisé dans cette thèse s'inscrit dans le projet de prévention précoce CAPEDP qui comprenait une intervention longitudinale adressée à une population de grande vulnérabilité psychosociale. Nos objectifs étaient de tester l'efficacité des interventions à domicile sur la qualité de l'attachement chez l'enfant et de comparer longitudinalement les comportements et les représentations d'attachement avec un groupe témoin qui a reçu les soins usuels. Méthodologie : notre travail est divisé en trois études et temps de mesure : 12, 18 et 48 mois de l'enfant. Les comportements d'attachement ont été évalués à travers la Situation Étrange à 12 mois et l'Attachment Q-sort à 18 mois. A 48 mois, nous avons évalué les représentations d'attachement avec l'Attachment Story Completion Task. Résultats : à 12 mois, les différences en termes de sécurité ne sont pas significatives mais nous remarquons plus d'enfants sécures dans le groupe intervention. A 18 mois, le groupe intervention a des scores de sécurité plus élevés. Nous remarquons aussi une amélioration significative entre 12 et 18 en termes de sécurité dans le groupe intervention. A 48 mois, nous retrouvons une amélioration au niveau des facteurs sociodémographiques et un effet de genre, les filles du groupe intervention étaient significativement plus sécures que celles du groupe contrôle. Discussion : l'intervention CAPEDP a eu un effet positif en augmentant la sécurité de l'attachement entre 12 et 18 mois. Les filles du groupe intervention semblent avoir profité plus de l'intervention CAPEDP. Plusieurs limites de l'étude sont discutées ainsi que les ouvertures de recherche, notamment une intervention conjointe psychologue-assistante sociale pour atténuer l'impact des facteurs de risque sur l'efficacité de l'intervention psychologique. / Context: this PhD research fits into the early prevention CAPEDP project: a home-visiting intervention addressing a high-risk population. Our goals were to test the efficiency of the intervention on infant attachment and to longitudinally compare attachment behaviours and representations with a control group that received only usual care. Method: our work is divided into 3 studies with different times and measures: 12, 18 et 48 months. Attachment behaviour was assessed with the Strange Situation at 12 months and with the Attachment Q-sort at 18 months. Attachment representations were assessed with the Attachment Story Completion Task at 48 months. Results: at 12 months, there are more secure infants in the intervention group although these differences are not statistically significant. At 18 months, the intervention group has higher scores of security. Results also show an improvement in terms of security between 12 and 18 months for the intervention group. At 48 months, results point out an improvement in socio-demographic factors and a gender difference: girls from the intervention group showed significantly higher attachment security than the control group. Discussion: the CAPEDP intervention had a positive effect in enhancing attachment security between 12 and 18 months. Girls seem to have profited the most from our intervention. The limitations and future directions are discussed, particularly the interest of a joint intervention between psychologists and social workers to diminish the socio-economic risk impact on the psychological intervention. / Contexto: este trabalho de tese insere-se no projeto de prevenção precoce CAPDP constituído por uma intervenção longitudinal dirigida a uma população com elevado risco psicossocial. Os objetivos eram testar a eficácia da intervenção a domicílio sobre a qualidade da vinculação na criança e comparar longitudinalmente os comportamentos e as representações de vinculação com um grupo controlo que beneficiou apenas do sistema de cuidados já existente. Metodologia: o nosso trabalho é dividido em três estudos ou tempos: 12, 18 e 48 meses da criança. Os comportamentos de vinculação foram avaliados com a Situação Estranha aos 12 meses e com o Attachment Q-sort aos 18. Aos 48 foram avaliadas as representações de vinculação com o Attachement Story Completion Task. Resultados: aos 12 meses, as diferenças em termos de segurança da vinculação não são significativas, mas constatámos a presença de mais crianças seguras no grupo intervenção. Aos 18 meses, o grupo intervenção verifica scores mais elevados de segurança. De notar também uma melhoria significativa entre os 12 e os 18 meses em termos de segurança da vinculação no grupo intervenção. Aos 48 meses, encontrámos melhorias a nível sociodemográfico e um efeito de género, sendo que as meninas do grupo intervenção apresentam scores de segurança das representações mais elevados comparativamente às do grupo controlo. Discussão: a intervenção CAPEDP teve um efeito positivo aumentando a segurança da vinculação entre 12 e 18 meses. As meninas do grupo intervenção parecem ter beneficiado mais da nossa intervenção. Os limites do estudo são discutidos assim como as aberturas para futuras investigações, nomeadamente para uma intervenção conjunta entre psicólogos e assistentes sociais para diminuir o impacto negativo dos factores de risco sobre a intervenção psicológica.