<p>The aim of this study is to investigate colonization processes and population and agricultural development during the 16th century. The studied geographical area consists of the northern part of the northernmost province of Sweden of that time, Västerbotten. During this period, this part of Sweden consists of four parishes, from the south to the north: Piteå, Luleå, Kalix and Torneå. The area constitutes a bailiwick (county administrative division) of its own, the northern bailiwick of Västerbotten. The geographical area studied in this thesis is today’s County of Norrbotten below the border of Lappmarken and Torneå Municipality in Finland.</p><p>By the middle of the 16th century the region is an established and developed agricultural district. The average farm’s acreage is nearly three acres. The differences between the parishes are considerable, however. Besides arable farming and cattle farming, fishing is important.</p><p>Studying land colonization, settlements and population in 16th century Sweden means being limited mainly to one kind of source, namely bailiff accounts (fogderäkenskaper). These accounts consist of cadastres (land registers of rent and revenue), registers of other ordinary and extraordinary taxes, and, from the end of 1560s, the tithe registers. This collection of registers constitutes the bailiffs’ accounts of incomes and expenses and is an expression of the increased control exerted by the Crown over production and private wealth in the country.</p><p>An important task has been to check the quality of the sources for the study. Quality means in this context up-to-dateness and completeness. An investigation of the sources shows that they were regularly updated. By comparing the different registers the completeness can be examined, i.e. the extent to which they correctly follow the instructions, “undervisningar”.</p><p>These circumstances, the up-to-dateness and completeness of the sources, guarantee the possibility of describing, in a correct manner, the real situation in the region regarding the land colonization, settlements and population.</p><p>Placing the development in the studied region in a geographical context has been important. Some studies have been performed using the cadastre registers, many of which were included in the Nordic project studying the late medieval desertion of the colonization process in Sweden during the 16th century, Nordiska ödegårdsprojektet.</p><p>A feature of the development in Sweden during the 16th century is two periods of growth and a weak or retrograde period in between. A common pattern in the settlement development is a strong growth in 1540s and 1550s. In the late 1560s and during the 1570s the settlements are weakening, stagnating or decreasing. From 1580 and onwards, another growth of farms is established again, to a greater or smaller extent.</p><p>The increase in the population is generally considered to be the main cause of the land colonization process in the 1540s and 1550s. The weaker development of the next two decades is related to the Nordic Seven Years’ War (Nordiska sjuårskriget), with its great negative impact on many areas in Sweden. After a fast recovery the colonization process starts again and is in progress for the rest of the century.</p><p>A closer study of the situation in two parishes in Norrbotten shows that the two periods of growth have different qualities. The first period, during the 1540s and 1550s, illustrates traditional progress through colonization. The growth consists of farm divisions and the establishment of new farms. The development of new farms follows a certain pattern. By clearing land the farm is established, a first registration is made, and the farm obtains tax release for a few years and is finally entered in the land register (jordeboken). During this period the agricultural sector is growing when both new and already established farms contribute by land reclamation.</p><p>During the second period of growth the farm division process continues and new farms are established. However, this time the new farms are generally of another kind. They are very small and are established mainly by detaching parts or buying land from older farms, not by land reclamation. The agricultural sector is not growing, with some exceptions, during this period. Furthermore, the population increase during the earlier period, which seemed to “force” the agricultural sector to grow, is not effective this time. Instead, during this second period, a population decrease takes place.</p><p>The general picture of the settlement development in Sweden during the 16th century is growth. The differences between regions concern the strength of the total growth of farms during this century. In Norrbotten the development is weaker than in most other regions in Sweden. The western part of the country seems on the whole to have a stronger growth than the eastern and northern part. It should be observed, however, that areas situated very close to each other can show quite a different progress.</p>

The aim of this study is to investigate colonization processes and population and agricultural development during the 16th century. The studied geographical area consists of the northern part of the northernmost province of Sweden of that time, Västerbotten. During this period, this part of Sweden consists of four parishes, from the south to the north: Piteå, Luleå, Kalix and Torneå. The area constitutes a bailiwick (county administrative division) of its own, the northern bailiwick of Västerbotten. The geographical area studied in this thesis is today’s County of Norrbotten below the border of Lappmarken and Torneå Municipality in Finland. By the middle of the 16th century the region is an established and developed agricultural district. The average farm’s acreage is nearly three acres. The differences between the parishes are considerable, however. Besides arable farming and cattle farming, fishing is important. Studying land colonization, settlements and population in 16th century Sweden means being limited mainly to one kind of source, namely bailiff accounts (fogderäkenskaper). These accounts consist of cadastres (land registers of rent and revenue), registers of other ordinary and extraordinary taxes, and, from the end of 1560s, the tithe registers. This collection of registers constitutes the bailiffs’ accounts of incomes and expenses and is an expression of the increased control exerted by the Crown over production and private wealth in the country. An important task has been to check the quality of the sources for the study. Quality means in this context up-to-dateness and completeness. An investigation of the sources shows that they were regularly updated. By comparing the different registers the completeness can be examined, i.e. the extent to which they correctly follow the instructions, “undervisningar”. These circumstances, the up-to-dateness and completeness of the sources, guarantee the possibility of describing, in a correct manner, the real situation in the region regarding the land colonization, settlements and population. Placing the development in the studied region in a geographical context has been important. Some studies have been performed using the cadastre registers, many of which were included in the Nordic project studying the late medieval desertion of the colonization process in Sweden during the 16th century, Nordiska ödegårdsprojektet. A feature of the development in Sweden during the 16th century is two periods of growth and a weak or retrograde period in between. A common pattern in the settlement development is a strong growth in 1540s and 1550s. In the late 1560s and during the 1570s the settlements are weakening, stagnating or decreasing. From 1580 and onwards, another growth of farms is established again, to a greater or smaller extent. The increase in the population is generally considered to be the main cause of the land colonization process in the 1540s and 1550s. The weaker development of the next two decades is related to the Nordic Seven Years’ War (Nordiska sjuårskriget), with its great negative impact on many areas in Sweden. After a fast recovery the colonization process starts again and is in progress for the rest of the century. A closer study of the situation in two parishes in Norrbotten shows that the two periods of growth have different qualities. The first period, during the 1540s and 1550s, illustrates traditional progress through colonization. The growth consists of farm divisions and the establishment of new farms. The development of new farms follows a certain pattern. By clearing land the farm is established, a first registration is made, and the farm obtains tax release for a few years and is finally entered in the land register (jordeboken). During this period the agricultural sector is growing when both new and already established farms contribute by land reclamation. During the second period of growth the farm division process continues and new farms are established. However, this time the new farms are generally of another kind. They are very small and are established mainly by detaching parts or buying land from older farms, not by land reclamation. The agricultural sector is not growing, with some exceptions, during this period. Furthermore, the population increase during the earlier period, which seemed to “force” the agricultural sector to grow, is not effective this time. Instead, during this second period, a population decrease takes place. The general picture of the settlement development in Sweden during the 16th century is growth. The differences between regions concern the strength of the total growth of farms during this century. In Norrbotten the development is weaker than in most other regions in Sweden. The western part of the country seems on the whole to have a stronger growth than the eastern and northern part. It should be observed, however, that areas situated very close to each other can show quite a different progress.

The Western Ledge Reef Wreck, discovered and later excavated in Bermuda between 1989 and 1991, is a prime example of Iberian shipbuilding within a broader Atlantic context. Operating during the late 16th-century, arguably one of the most fascinating periods of Spanish maritime history, the ship epitomizes the culture and technology identified with the celebrated fleets of the Carrera de Indias. By combining the new and previously unavailable data with that of the original reports, this dissertation outlines the structural details of this small utilitarian vessel which plowed the Atlantic Ocean between Spain and the Spanish America. Regarded as one of the better preserved Iberian shipwrecks in the New World, the hull timbers were disassembled and raised to the surface for detailed recording and analysis; the most comprehensive being the study and reconstruction presented in this dissertation. This data not only illustrates the transition from late medieval ship construction founded on the unempirical and intuitive style of local shipwrights to that of the geometrically- and scientific-rooted Renaissance design philosophy, but also to a frame-led assembly sequence. The hull remains and associated cultural material excavated from the site prove to be an important 16th- and 17th-century collection of Spanish and New World origin, which collectively reinforce the notion that the Western Ledge Reef Wreck was on its homebound course when it sunk among treacherous Bermuda reefs sometime between 1560 and 1600.

In 1587, an ambitious colonial bureaucrat in Mexico City published a handbook titled Instrucción náutica. Although navigational books were common throughout the 16th century, the Instrucción náutica was the first printed volume that included an extensive discussion of ship construction and design, and its publication was thus a significant event in the history of early modern nautical technology. While the work is frequently cited in discussions of 16th-century Spanish ship construction and seafaring, little in-depth analysis of the text has been undertaken to verify its accuracy. In order to understand the significance of the book, a critical evaluation was undertaken of its context and content and of the motivations and background of its author. Analysis of documents written by, about, and to Diego García de Palacio reveals that he held positions of academic, religious, and political power in New Spain, that his motives for publishing the book were complex, and that he consulted a range of disparate sources. Significantly, archival correspondence suggests that García de Palacio was an observer and administrator of navigation and ship construction, rather than an expert practitioner. Nonetheless, comparison of the technical content of the book with other sources of information for 16th-century ships and seafaring, including contemporary treatises, iconography, and archaeological materials confirms the overall accuracy of the text. The navigational materials included in the Instrucción náutica reflect information adapted from existing texts, providing a solid overview of the most common techniques of navigation in use at the time. While useful, García de Palacio’s discussion of ship design was clearly intended for a non-specialist audience. Perhaps the most original technical contributions are his descriptions of the rigging of Spanish ships. The brief discussion of naval strategy is historically significant due to its juxtaposition between the last of the great naval battles fought primarily with boarding tactics, and the movement toward increasing reliance on the broadside. By comparing García de Palacio’s text to other sources of information, this study has confirmed the reputation of the Instrucción náutica as one of the most comprehensive and accurate written descriptions of 16th-century Spanish seafaring practices.

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Modern scholars have suggested various approaches to the analysis of the pretonal repertory. However, if we consider the question of how the individual voice parts interact in a Renaissance polyphonic composition to create coherence for the movement as a whole, we find that there are no tools available to undertake such a task. We may be able to speak generally of the arrival of certain moments as relatively accented or unaccented; we may even be able to dissect a complete melodic line with some segmentation process to highlight motivic structure, phrase development or contour-articulated pitch events. But there are no analytic strategies available yet which are capable of disclosing the structures of independent voice parts and their interaction as timepoint-accenting elements capable of creating formal, rhythmic and pitch-class patterns. This study outlines a methodology that has been developed to deal with these specific issues. The analytic strategy is based on the perception of accents in individual voices of polyphonic works. The types of accents germane to Renaissance polyphony include durational, leap, contour, cadential and beginning-accents. The study proposes a simple, bipartite classification of accentual strength—strong or weak. Each voice part in a work is then analyzed, with every pitch attack represented as strongly or weakly accented through special notation developed for the analysis. The methodology affords a picture of the most strongly- accented timepoints in the individual melodies of three- and four-voice cantus firmus masses of the mid- to late fifteenth century. The relative strengths of these accents, along with their synchronization in the multi-voice aggregate, are disclosed through the notation. After renotating scores with this special notational symbology, we extract points of coincident strong accents in three or more voices to create accent profiles for each section of a movement. We then compare profiles of same-texted works by different composers in order to disclose normative formal and pitch-class procedures in some Renaissance compositions.

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Towards the end of the fifteenth century in Italy an upwardly mobile, morally questionable, and highly erudite woman appeared on the social and literary circuit: the courtesan. Technically a prostitute, she rose above her often dubious beginnings to bask in the prestige accorded to society's elite. Although revered by some, her blatant transgression of traditional gender roles and class hierarchies offended many others. The writings of her detractors attempted to lower the courtesan's status to that of a common prostitute, by ridiculing her intellectual achievements and by depicting her as unclean and diseased. This thesis, which focuses on sixteenth-century Venice, will examine six works criticizing courtesans, and demonstrate what each work reveals about the dynamics of power in sixteenth-century gender and power relations, as they manifested themselves in the sexual arena.

The aim of this study was to investigate and analyze similarities and differences in trials and punishment from a gender perspective, during the inquisition in the episcopate of Linköping. A inquisition initiated by duke Karl but performed by archbishop Abraham Angermannus in the year 1596.During the working process a quantitive method was used in the purpose of getting statistic data considering number of men and women that were trialed and punished. A hermeneutic qualitive method was also used in the purpose of closer investigating certain cases that men and women were involved in. The theoretical concepts that have been of importance and used in this study are the individual and the female subject that is based on gender in judicial procedures.The results showed that 49 % of the men were trialed for quarrel. Not as many men were trialed for contempt towards the church and witchery.The most frequently used corporal punishment in this cases were flogging that were executed for totally 38 % of the men.The investigation also proved that men were punished with these forms of corporal punishments for showing their contempt towards the church. Although flogging were the most sentenced punishment for quarrelsome husbands, some were set free from this, even if they had behaved very badly towards their wife.Not many noblemen was affected by Angermannus inquisition and only six out of seven in total calculations, were trialed for contempt against the church. None of them were punished. In the case of women whom lived in the episcopate, witchery were the most trialed crime.As for the men, the most usual form of corporal punishment for women, were flogging that was executed for 51 %. However, flogging in comparison with number of men punished a greater number of women. But not as many noblewomen were trialed or punished, in comparison with the number of nobleman. Only two were trialed for contempt towards the church.Considering fornication and adultery, a much larger number of men were trialed for adultery. When it comes to certain forms of punishment, more men than women were sentenced to pay various forms of fines to the church. At the same time, a smaller amount of men were sentenced to flogging followed by a number of buckets with water, that were poured over the condemned. Considering the nobles and the cases of sexual crimes more men than women were trialed.Between the sexes, more men than women were sentenced with conditional sentences. In some cases the conditional sentences were identical between the sexes, meanwhile another case proved that a conditional sentence were sentenced for the household.How did the inquisition affect women with different social status? In this case considering farm girls and widows? 112 farm girls and widows were trialed in the episcopate. The quantitative study showed that 94 farm girls in contrast with 18 widows was trialed. Not many widows had to suffer the corporal punishment in comparison with farm girls, whom not only got more punishment, but also were sentenced to flogging, a punishment that never was attested to widows. Keywords: Archbishop Angermannus, gender, 16th century, inquisition, protocol, trial, corporal punishment