Lietuva visais laikais garsėjo savo miškais. Nepražengiamos girios stebindavo į mūsų kraštą negausiai užklydusius svetimšalius. Savo prisiminimuose apie Lietuvos Didžiąją Kunigaikštystę jie sutartinai akcentuodavo stulbinamą girių didumą bei žvėrių įvairovę. Iš visų miško teikiamų dovanų žmogui galėtume išskirti medžius. Mediena buvo nepamainomas šilumos šaltinis, pagrindinė statybinė medžiaga. XVI amžiuje, Vakarų Europoje smarkiai išaugus medienos gaminių poreikiui, miškas, jo gaminiai Lietuvoje po truputį tapo viena iš pagrindinių eksporto prekių. / Lithuania has always been famous for own forests. Rarely foreigners who for some reason had a possibility to see our nature were surprised by its heavy forests. In the memories of Grand Ducky of Lithuania they were always highlighting the shocking immensity of the forests and the big variety of animals. Out of all the gifts offered by the forest we should distinguish the trees. The wood was invaluable source of heat as well as the main building material. In the sixteenth century in Western Europe the demand for wood products increased which led to increase of Lithuania‘s wood export. Wood became the main export product.

This thesis examines the built environment and culture of Scotland between 1560 and 1645 by analysing church buildings erected during the period. The mid-sixteenth century ecclesiastical Reformation and mid-seventeenth-century political and ecclesiastical tumult in Scotland provide brackets that frame the development of this physical aspect of Scottish cultural history. This thesis draws most heavily on architectural and ecclesiastical history, and creates a compound of the two methods. That new compound brings to the forefront of the analysis the people who produced the buildings and for whom the church institution operated. The evidence used reflects this dual approach: examinations of buildings themselves, where they survive, of documentary evidence, and of contemporary and modern maps support the narrative analysis. The thesis is divided into two sections: Context and Process. The Context section cements the place of the cultural contributions made by ecclesiastical buildings to Scottish history by analysing the ecclesiastical historical, theological, and political contexts of buildings. The historical analysis helps explain why, for example, certain places managed to build churches successfully while others took much longer. The creative tension between these on-the-ground institutions and theoretical ideas contributed to Scotland’s ability to produce cultural spaces. The Process section analyses the narratives of individual buildings in several different steps: Preparing, Building, Occupying, and Relating. These steps connected people with the physical entity of a church building. The Preparing chapter shows how many reasons in Scotland there were to initiate a building project. The Building chapter uses financial, design, and work narratives to tease out the intricacies of individual church stories. Occupying and Relating delve into later histories of individual congregations to understand how churches sat within the world about them. Early modern Scottish church building was immensely varied: the position, style, impact, purpose, and success of church buildings were different across the realm. The manner people building and using churches reacted to their environments played no small role in forming habits for future action. Church buildings thus played a role establishing who early modern Scottish people were, what their institutions did, and how their spirituality was lived daily.

The thesis comprises two parts: the first examines German Reformation dialogues from the period 1520 to 1525 in a general study; the second discusses six texts in detail. The introduction deals with the literary tradition of dialogue, with the place of Reformation dialogues among other contemporary forms of literature, with the rapid growth of printing and the output of polemical pamphlets, and with present-day evaluations of both German Reformation dialogues and the society which produced them. As most dialogues were published anonymously, the question of authorship is treated. The authors' aims, views and loyalties coincide in some instances and display dissimilarities in others. The broad anticlerical movement encompasses a variety of different shades of opinion. Common characteristics in the way polemical dialogues were written are determined, and variations noted. The 'common man' appears both as a frequent interlocutor in dialogues and as a recurrent topic of debate. It is the conduct and the role of the Roman church, however, which represents the predominant concerns of the dialogue-authors. The possibility that the 'common man' protagonist influenced the way in which commoners saw themselves and were seen by other social groups is examined, as is the possible effect of the literary 'common man' on social unrest among the contemporary lower classes. Part I concludes that there is no evidence to show that German Reformation dialogues played any direct or even indirect role in inciting rebellion. It is, moreover, doubtful whether significant numbers of the actual insurgents were influenced by or even familiar with the German Reformation dialogues. The pamphlets were primarily for the literate classes, the educated and semieducated. The dialogues studied in detail in Part II are Karsthans, Pfarrer und Schultheiß, Kunz und Fritz, Chorherr und Schuhmacher, Bauer, Belial, Erasmus und Dr. Faber, and Muntzerischer Schwarmer und evangelischer Bauer. This choice reflects the changing preoccupations of the authors from the beginning to the end of a singularly formative period in German history. This study aims to ascertain the particular concerns of each author and the manner in which he has sought to present them to the reader.

Over 450 motets survive from the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries which were composed with multiple simultaneously sounding texts. The size of this repertory has been underestimated and its importance under-acknowledged. Narratives of the genre overemphasize early fifteenth-century (and earlier) polytextuality due to its association with arcane rhythmic structuring techniques while stressing a new musical-textual ideal later in the century. This thesis is the first attempt to address the repertory of polytextual motets from the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries as a whole. It resituates polytextuality as a central aspect of the genre even after the supposed rise of musical humanism. It suggests a new partitioning of the repertory based on different relationships of texts and cantus firmi. It proposes that the function of cantus firmi shifts during this period toward acting in dialogue with the text(s) of the other voices, even though this dialogic aspect fades away by the mid-sixteenth century. It engages in case studies on small groups of motets, in which the notation, composition, and texts of motets are analyzed, especially concerning cantus firmi as elements of musical structure and as bearers of liturgical, biblical, devotional, and other associations. While scholars have undertaken numerous analyses of individual motets, less common are case studies which ask both why certain texts and cantus firmi were combined and how they were integrated into the musical structure. The appendix includes a catalogue of the repertoire of polytextual motets and chansons with Latin cantus firmi over this period, with indexes by cantus firmus and composer. Also included are transcriptions of seven polytextual compositions without published editions. My research demonstrates the importance of polytextuality within the genre, the sophistication of the compositions using it, and its ability to provide commentary on a number of theological, devotional, political, and aesthetic issues.

As readers of the journal of the marquis d'Argenson will knows the mastres des requetes ordinaires do 1'hotel du roi were "la vraie pepiniere des administrateurs" in the eighteenth century (1) From this judicial company were drawn the intendants of the provinces, finance and commerce, most of the councillors of state and, sometimes, secretaries of state, keepers of the seal and chancellors. (2) The term "pepiniere" could also be used to describe the masters during the reign of Louis X, at least after 1660. Yet, before the reign of Louis xiii the description was not an accurate characterization, for the simple reason that the centralized administration of later Bourbon France did not exist. To be sure administrators abounded, even though they were fewer in number in sixteenth than seventeenth-century France. As a well-known article by Gaston Zeller illustrates Valois France was ruled by a decentralized. administration. - (3) "Before the intendants" the realm was under the supervision of governors, parlements, estates and local functionaries. Representatives from the centre made few appearances in the provinces, for the centre was composed of the king and his court and only a handful of robins and scribes. From the end of the religious wars until the Fronde this system began to crumble under the assault of what historians refer to as administrative centralization. To say that the monarchy "undertook" this policy would be misleading since it was mainly a consequence of the efforts of the crown, supported by much of the elite, to liberate itself from both the Protestant state-within a- state and the Spanish hegemony. Obliged to mobilize resources, to control internal conditions which became more alarming in the 1620s and 1630s and to handle the growing influx of administrative and judicial business which was the result of its policies, the crown required a group of officials who would be responsible first and foremost to itself. Local magistrates and administrators, whose reliability was sometimes undermined by provincial loyalties and attachments to venerable institutions dis-ow posing of much independence from the crown, could not be entrusted with all the necessary, tasks. But the company, of masters, originally a tiny group of magistrates who had traditionally received placets presented to the king, was the tool to which the king had recourse. One of our intentions is to show how the monarchy adapted this traditional group to serve ends which were revolutionary. This work traces what can only be called the rise of the masters", a phenomena which coincided with their metamorphosis into the "pepiniere" of a central administration which was busier and more involved in local affairs under Louis XIII than under the Valois. The period covered is one which would have seemed coherent to men of the l64Os vfor as Pomponne do Bellievre, a councillor of state, wrote: de temps en temps les fonctions do lours charges s'estoient alleves et quelquefois diminuees, ii est advenu quo los guerres civilles de la ligue finissantes apres la diminuation de leurs charges, elles se releverent beaucoup, en sorte quo le prix d'icelles estant d'un tiers moindre que les offices au parlement, auiourd'huy, cinquante ans apres, le prix an est augmente pardessus les offices au parlement de plus du tiers, l'asseurance du droict annuel donna courage d'y entrer et L'esperance at comme certitude d'en sortir conseiller d'estat: en y ayant beaucoup porte qui autrement n'y fussent pas entres"., (4) However, ideally we would be obliged to follow the history of the company into the 1660s. This has been done in some, but not all, sections of this work. The story of the group is a complicated and rich one' as scholars who have ventured in this direction-- especially Professors Mousnier and Antoine-- are well aware. (5) Although the most important cause of the magisterial success is the one noted above, it will be necessary to explain other factors- the conditions of success, some of which lay in the chaotic financial conditions of Valois France, and other forces which propelled the masters along an advantageous itinerary. , "such as their skill as a pressure group. Attention, will also be given to the ambiguities of their position. for they were tied closely professionally, and socially to judicial companies which drifted steadily into opposition to the crown, under Louis XII7.

The life, music, and theoretical writings of Pietro Pontio (1532-1596) yield considerable insight into questions of theory and practice in the late sixteenth century. The dissertation places Pontio within his musical and cultural milieu, and assesses his role as both theorist and composer. Volume Two presents an annotated works list for Pontio's compositions, transcriptions of archival documents used in the study, and transcriptions of representative musical compositions.

The life, music, and theoretical writings of Pietro Pontio (1532-1596) yield considerable insight into questions of theory and practice in the late sixteenth century. The dissertation places Pontio within his musical and cultural milieu, and assesses his role as both theorist and composer. Volume Two presents an annotated works list for Pontio's compositions, transcriptions of archival documents used in the study, and transcriptions of representative musical compositions.

No description available.

No description available.

This study investigates the changing understanding of the role of the ???architect??? in Italy during the sixteenth century by examining frontispieces to published architectural treatises. From analysis of these illustrations four attributes emerge as important to new societal understandings of the role of ???architect.??? The first attribute is the desire to delineate the boundaries of knowledge for architecture as a discipline, relevant to sixteenth-century society. The second is the depiction of the ???architect,??? as an intellectual engaged in the resolution of practical, political, economic and philosophical considerations of his practice. The third represents the ???architect??? having a specific domain of activity in the design of civic spaces of magnificence not only for patrons but also for the city per se. The fourth represents the ???architect??? and society as perceiving a commonality of an architectural role beyond the boundary of individual locations and patrons. Five treatises meet the criteria set for this study: Sebastiano Serlio???s Regole generali di architetura sopra le Cinque maniere de gli edifici cio??, Toscano, Dorico, Ionico, Corinthio, et Composito, con gli essempi dell???antiquita, che, per la magior parte concordano con la dottrina di Vitruvio, 1537, his, Il Terzo libro nel qual si figurano, e descrivono le antichita di Roma, 1540, Cosimo Bartoli???s translation of Alberti???s De re aedificatoria titled L???architettura di Leonbattista Alberti, tradotta in lingua fiorentina da Cossimo Bartoli, Gentilhuomo, & Academico Fiorentino, 1550; Daniele Barbaro???s translation and commentary on Vitruvius??? De???architetura titled, I dieci libri dell???architettura di M. Vitruvio tradutti et commentati da monsignor Barbaro eletto Patriarca d???Aquileggia, 1556; and Andrea Palladio???s I quattro libri dell???architettura, 1570. A second aim for the study was to review the usefulness of frontispieces as an historical archive. It was found that frontispieces visually structure important ideas by providing a narrative with meaning as an integral part of the illustration. In this narrative frontispiece illustrations prioritise concepts found in the accompanying text and impose a hierarchical structure of importance for fundamental ideas.