This is the first single study of the relationship between John Ruskin and Dante Gabriel Rossetti, and the first to claim a similarity between their Aesthetic ideas. The assumption that Rossetti merely tolerated Ruskin for the sake of his patronage has discouraged the search for any significant intellectual exchange. No previous explanation has been sought for Ruskin's insistence, despite even Rossetti's opposition, that Rossetti was the intellectual leader of the Pre-Raphaelite Movement. This analysis reveals that Ruskin favoured Rossetti's art for qualities which he is not usually held to have admired in Pre-Raphaelitism, and which he began to emphasise soon after meeting Rossetti. Although Rossetti's reputed indifference to Ruskin is partly the result of the one-sided impression afforded by the imbalance of the extant correspondence it is also because all previous accounts of the relationship have been selective and have therefore perpetrated a superficial impression of conflict. A comprehensive and detailed examination of the correspondence has revealed that the particular disagreements were made possible by a fundamental sympathy. The relationship which emerged seems to have been, contrary to prevailing opinion, initiated by common aims, sustained by mutual professional respect, and dissolved by developing ideological differences. Having established the possibility of mutual influence between Ruskin and Rossetti, the thesis analyses the common theory of creativity underlying the work produced during their ten-year friendship. There follows a discussion of two aspects of Rossetti f s creative practice towards which Ruskin showed unequalled sensitivity, presumably as a result of his own artistic preoccupations: the Symbolic or Grotesque power, and the reliance upon Memory. Ruskin's collection of Rossettis;- is discussed, and an explanation offered for the apparent discrepancy between his public and private opinions of Rossetti's work. Finally it is claimed that Rossetti's affinity with Ruskin modifies his links with Aestheticism. This study hopes not only to justify the analysis of the Aesthetic ideas common to Ruskin and Rossetti, but also to consider its implications for both Pre-Raphaelitism and Aestheticism.

Throughout the earlier part of the nineteenth century Vergil, Homer and Horace dominated the teaching in public schools. At Eton a boy would go through the odes two or three times at least, and would be expected to memorise them all. The handing down of interleaved texts and an unimaginative adherence to traditional systems of 'calling up' boys exempted the idle from industry or cerebration; at the same time, the knowledge of Horace acquired by a tolerably conscientious boy would probably need little enlargement to satisfy Oxford examiners, at least till the late 'fifties, though in Cambridge some familiarity with Bentley's edition would probably be required. Horace's metres were analysed by James Tate with some skill, but his paper received little attention, and most copies of Latin lyrics shew only a rudimentary knowledge of the demands of metre and vocabulary. The level at which the discussion of Horace was carried on throughout the century is demonstrated by articles in the Quarterly Review by James Hannay, novelist and essayist v in October 1333, and by Arthur Palmer, editor of the Satires, in October 1894. Horace's character is conflated from references in his works accepted with exaggerated credulity; even when the ladies of the odes are declared not to have had a real existence, Horace's attitude towards them is still discussed. Palmer and his contemporaries read and discussed the Horatian scholarship produced on the continent; Verrall and Sellar contributed to it; but new interpretations had little effect on the 'cult'. In the 'seventies William Cyples wrote two articles on Horace, in the first and most important of which he argues that the odes are virtuoso literary performances and have no basis in foot or factual morality. The articles are worth recalling for their energy, freshness and originality. By providing a contrast they reveal the general narrowness of contemporary Horatian discussion and the possibility of worshipping Horace without conforming to the cult. The characteristics of Horace and his poetry most popularly pondered are illustrated in many essays, reviews and prefaces to translations. The themes vary less than the distribution of emphasis among them. Horace's politics, philosophy and religion were discussed at much the same length as his preference for town or country. Most of his admirers supposed him to prefer the country. Disagreement was rather as to the relative importance of Horace's references to himself than as to their objective truth. Comparisons with Burns and Béranger, and with Thackeray, characterise the Horace of the nineteenth century as he usually appeared. The question of how best to translate Horace was widely debated. The flaccid 'Augustan' octosyllables of Francis were imitated by lesser translators early in the century, but they also gave rise to more self-consciously 'classical' attempts which endeavoured to demonstrate the foreign qualities of Horace's poetry. Others at the same time strove after 'popular' effects and English poetry. Every position between the two extremes is represented. Conspicuous among the 'alienists' were those who tried to write Englian verse in classical metres; some anxious to produce a more Horatian Horace, others simply using him as a conveniently fertile source of metrical variety. The difficulty of writing classical verses in English is obviously due to the different natures of Latin and English prosody. Unfortunately no analysis of the structure and dynamics of English verse has ever achieved universal acceptance. The nineteenth century experimenters encountered an additional difficulty in that they rarely agreed with one another as to how Latin verses ought to be read. The dispute was carried on with great liveliness and some ingenious solutions were suggested. Others contented themselves with forming or adapting verses on English 'rules' to serve the special needs of Horace. The first to attract much attention was Francis Newman, who set out to translate Horace in 1853 on principles similar to those which he later brought to his Iliad. In his translation of Horace the qualities which he hoped to convey were terseness and a strict adherence to the stanzaic economy of the originals. He employed rhymeless stanzas made up of iambic or trochaic lines, but fell short of elegance. Occasional successes are surrounded by passages clumsy, obscure and bizarre. His anxiety to instruct is emphasized by his decision to present the odes in a possible chronological order. The educational advantage of this scheme with reference to the 'historical' odes is self-evident, but since Newman refused to regard the 'literary houris' as fictitious, he fell into some confusion in his attempts to ascertain the order of Horace's amours. His notes on the odes sometimes reflect very strikingly his preoccupation with the political and social morality of his own times. Seven years later Theodore Martin published a complete translation of the odes. He was a prolific translator, and his Horatian activities extend from the appearance of a few versions in 1845 to a translation of Horace's complete works, accompanied by a lengthy critical biography in 1881. His aims were almost precisely opposite to those of Newman, whose translation, though it probably did not provoke Martin's, was there subject to some gentle mockery. Martin's versions are fluent and facile, recalling both to his hostile and his favourable critics the ballads of Tom Moore. They are unusual in so far as they present the odes as coherent wholes, rather than as sets of stanzas uncertainly related. The results may be a more than usually comprehensible English poem, but the intention of Horace is necessarily often distorted. The evolution of Martin's Horace over the next twenty years is influenced by the suggestions of critics, the rivalry of Conington's translation, and the translator's increasing social and literary eminence; it became something of a popular classic, a position challenged only by Conington. Conington's version which appeared in 1863, was more austere and more calculated to appeal to scholarly critics. Like Martin's it was executed in accepted English rhyming metres; like Newman's it presents, for the most part, only one English equivalent for each Latin metre. It appears that Conington took to translation as a deliberate attempt to resolve the tension between the lure of philological abstraction and a desire for a wider field of human contact. On a simple level the translation reflects this. Bven if not eminently representative of Horace, Conington's versions are more classical than Martin's: if they are rarely brilliant, they are as rarely offensive. All succeeding nineteenth century translations were liable to comparison with Conington's and it was highly praised by Quiller Couch and by Housman. Lord Lytton's translation, published in 1869, probably owed the critical attention it received largely to the fame of the author. It was undertaken originally for therapeutic purposes when Lytton's matrimonial infelicity erupted spectacularly into publicity. It has been justly described as the moat ambitious of failures in this field. Attempting to produce a version more classical than Conington's, Lytton chose, like Newman, to employ rhymeless metres; on the other hand, he allowed himself a greater degree of freedom in using more than one representative for the sapphic and the alcaic. His metres are sometimes difficult to read and probably seemed stranger to his contemporaries than they do now. By compromising Lytton failed to satisfy both those who looked for pleasant English verses and those who hoped for more servile classical approximations. As a piece of literature Gladstone's translation of Horace, executed in his eighty-fourth year, has little to recommend it either on the grounds of success or of novelty.

Jane Austen champions practicality and compatibility versus purely romantic or mercenary sentiment in her novels, and through narrative techniques she preserves her heroines from imprudent marriages. Austen's heroines do not fall madly in love at first sight, but rather they acquiesce to marriage through reason and discernment. She endows her heroines with qualities that make them worthy of her interference in the marriage plot: intelligent although inexperienced, possessed of realistic expectations and sensibility and reason, and, importantly, financial instability. She carefully cultivates heroes worthy of her heroines through plot twists. However, to show her dissatisfaction with the limited roles available to the 19th century woman, she denies the reader the opportunity to witness the wedding that concludes her narratives. The narrator demonstrates her approval or disapprobation by choosing what scenes to narrate and what scenes to dramatize, the latter often representative of her disapproval, her silence signifying her acceptance.

This thesis explores the relationship between the Classical Greek legacy and today’s world by examining the past two hundred years of controversy surrounding Lord Elgin’s removal of the Parthenon Marbles from Athens. Since the Marbles were purchased by the British Museum in 1816, they have become symbols of democratic values and Greek cultural identity. By considering how the Parthenon Marbles are talked about by different people over the years, from art connoisseurs and Romantic poets of the early 19th century to nationalist political activists of the late 20th century, this thesis demonstrates that the fight for the Marbles’ return to Greece is about more than just the sculptures themselves. It is about national heritage and cultural identity.

The thesis investigates the fictional uses of the figure of the unchaste woman over the period of the early feminist movement in order to trace attitudes towards woman as a sexual being and as a person in her own right. The cheap and popular literature of the period has been used both to illuminate accepted conventions, so that the achievement of major novelists can be more clearly understood, and to discover differences in style, moral intent, and emotional content of the fiction consumed by women of various social classes which may be related to class-based differences in feminine role, expectations, and self-image. [continued in text ...]

Charles Dickens é um autor cujos méritos literários são, muitas vezes, obscurecidos por sua enorme popularidade, sendo seus livros relegados por muitos à categoria de mero entretenimento. O propósito deste trabalho é analisar na forma do romance como - apesar de temas e estilo que se apresentam como populares - o texto de Hard Times pode revelar um interessante e profundo diálogo entre literatura e sociedade. Sentimentalismo e melodrama são estudados como formas tipicamente dickensianas de representação dos conflitos e transformações sociais que afetaram o século XIX. / Charles Dickens has sometimes had his literary qualities darkened by his enormous popularity, and his books have been considered by many critics as nothing but entertainment. The objective of this work is to analyse how the form of the novel - in spite of its popular style and theme- promotes in Hard Times an interesting and profound dialogue between literature and society. Sentimentalism and melodrama are studied as typically Dickensian forms of representation of social changes and conflicts in the 19th Century.

Esta tese procura analisar as representações de Richard Francis Burton na África Ocidental, durante sua permanência como cônsul inglês na Baía de Biafra entre os anos de 1861 e 1865. Para isto, procurou-se reconstituir o contexto histórico das relações inglesas com a região ao longo do século XIX, bem como a história das regiões descritas por Burton em seus textos. Além disto, também analizou-se os espaços de circulação dos textos de Burton na Inglaterra, e a relação do autor com a Royal Geographical Society e a Anthropological Society of London. O objetivo é recuperar parte da complexidade constitutiva de seus textos, valorizando a experiência pessoal do autor frente a resistência dos africanos à imposição de dinâmicas comerciais e econômicas inglesas. Para a consecução destes objetivos, foi realizada uma comparação entre os diversos registros escritos de Burton: documentos consulares no Foreign Office, artigos para revistas científicas e relatos de viagem / This thesis tries to analyze the representations of Richard Francis Burton in West Africa, during his consulship at the Fight of Biafra in the years between 1861-1865. To make it, we have reconstructed the historical context of the British relations with the region along the 19th century, as well as the history of the regions described by Burton in his texts. We also analyze the spaces of circulation of Burton\'s texts in England, and his relations with the Royal Geographical Society and the Anthropological Society of London. The aim is to recover part o the constitutive complexities of his texts, stressing the authors personal experience facing the African resistance to the impositions of British commercial and economic dynamics. To achieve these aims, we make a comparison between the several kinds of Burton\'s texts: the Foreign Office papers, articles to scientific journals, and travel writings.

Esta tese procura analisar as representações de Richard Francis Burton na África Ocidental, durante sua permanência como cônsul inglês na Baía de Biafra entre os anos de 1861 e 1865. Para isto, procurou-se reconstituir o contexto histórico das relações inglesas com a região ao longo do século XIX, bem como a história das regiões descritas por Burton em seus textos. Além disto, também analizou-se os espaços de circulação dos textos de Burton na Inglaterra, e a relação do autor com a Royal Geographical Society e a Anthropological Society of London. O objetivo é recuperar parte da complexidade constitutiva de seus textos, valorizando a experiência pessoal do autor frente a resistência dos africanos à imposição de dinâmicas comerciais e econômicas inglesas. Para a consecução destes objetivos, foi realizada uma comparação entre os diversos registros escritos de Burton: documentos consulares no Foreign Office, artigos para revistas científicas e relatos de viagem / This thesis tries to analyze the representations of Richard Francis Burton in West Africa, during his consulship at the Fight of Biafra in the years between 1861-1865. To make it, we have reconstructed the historical context of the British relations with the region along the 19th century, as well as the history of the regions described by Burton in his texts. We also analyze the spaces of circulation of Burton\'s texts in England, and his relations with the Royal Geographical Society and the Anthropological Society of London. The aim is to recover part o the constitutive complexities of his texts, stressing the authors personal experience facing the African resistance to the impositions of British commercial and economic dynamics. To achieve these aims, we make a comparison between the several kinds of Burton\'s texts: the Foreign Office papers, articles to scientific journals, and travel writings.

Charles Dickens é um autor cujos méritos literários são, muitas vezes, obscurecidos por sua enorme popularidade, sendo seus livros relegados por muitos à categoria de mero entretenimento. O propósito deste trabalho é analisar na forma do romance como - apesar de temas e estilo que se apresentam como populares - o texto de Hard Times pode revelar um interessante e profundo diálogo entre literatura e sociedade. Sentimentalismo e melodrama são estudados como formas tipicamente dickensianas de representação dos conflitos e transformações sociais que afetaram o século XIX. / Charles Dickens has sometimes had his literary qualities darkened by his enormous popularity, and his books have been considered by many critics as nothing but entertainment. The objective of this work is to analyse how the form of the novel - in spite of its popular style and theme- promotes in Hard Times an interesting and profound dialogue between literature and society. Sentimentalism and melodrama are studied as typically Dickensian forms of representation of social changes and conflicts in the 19th Century.