Common dolphins (genus Delphinus) are poorly understood within New Zealand waters. Prior to this study, most information relating to the taxonomy, population structure, diet and pollutant loads of this genus relied upon untested assumptions. Furthermore, factors affecting the occurrence, demographics and habitat use of common dolphins in the Hauraki Gulf remained unknown. This lack of empirical data has resulted in the inadequate recognition and management of New Zealand Delphinus. Inappropriately classified by the New Zealand Threat Classification System, the anthropogenic impacts that affect this genus have clearly been overlooked. The present study examines behaviour of common dolphins in the Hauraki Gulf and details analyses undertaken on tissue samples collected from around New Zealand. Results detailed here challenge many of the untested assumptions about this genus within New Zealand waters. The taxonomy of New Zealand common dolphins was assessed using 92 samples analysed for 577 base pairs (bps) of the mtDNA control region (D-loop). New Zealand samples were compared with 177 published sequences from eight other populations from around the world. New Zealand Delphinus exhibited a high genetic variability, sharing haplotypes with both short- (D. delphis) and long-beaked (D. capensis) populations. Indeed, the New Zealand population showed significant genetic differentiation when compared with most other populations world-wide. Furthermore, intrapopulation analyses revealed significant genetic differentiation between Hauraki Gulf individuals and other common dolphins sampled within New Zealand waters. Results suggest habitat choice and site fidelity may play a role in shaping the fragmented population structure of New Zealand Delphinus. Data relating to the occurrence and demographics of common dolphins in the Hauraki Gulf region were collected during boat-based surveys between February 2002 and January 2005. In total, 719 independent encounters, involving one to > 300 common dolphins were recorded. Dolphin presence was significantly affected by month, latitude and depth. Group size varied significantly by month, season, depth, sea surface temperature (SST) and latitude, and was highly skewed towards smaller groups comprising fewer than 50 animals. Calves were observed throughout the year but were most prevalent in the austral summer months of December and January. Group composition was significantly affected by month, season, depth and SST. The yearround occurrence and social organisation of Delphinus in Hauraki Gulf waters suggest this region is an important nursery and potential calving area. The effects of diel, season, depth, sea surface temperature, and group size and composition on dolphin behaviour were investigated using activity budgets. Foraging and social were the most and least frequently observed behaviours, respectively. A correlation between group size and behaviour was evident, although behaviour did not vary with the composition of dolphin groups. Resting, milling and socialising animals were more frequently observed in smaller groups. Foraging behaviour was prevalent in both small and large groups, suggesting foraging plasticity exists within this population. Behaviour differed between single- and multi-species groups, with foraging more frequent in mixed-species aggregations, indicating the primary mechanism for association is likely prey-related. Stomach contents analysed for forty-two stranded and eleven commercially by-caught individuals collected from around North Island, New Zealand between 1997 and 2006, revealed arrow squid (Nototodarus spp.), jack mackerel (Trachurus spp.) and anchovy (Engraulis australis) as the most prevalent prey. Stranded individuals and dolphins bycaught within neritic waters fed on both neritic and oceanic prey. Moreover, a mixed prey composition was evident in the diet of common dolphins by-caught in oceanic waters, suggesting inshore/offshore movements of New Zealand Delphinus on a diel basis. Additionally, prey differences were also evident in the stomach contents of common dolphins sampled from within the Hauraki Gulf. Trace elements, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and organochlorine (OC) pesticide levels were determined in five stranded and fourteen by-caught Delphinus sampled from around New Zealand between 1999 and 2005. Generally, levels of trace elements were low. However, concentrations of OC pesticides were similar in range to those previously reported for Hector’s (Cephalorhyncus hectori) and common bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). Organochlorine pesticides dieldrin, hexachlorobenzene (HCB), o,p’-DDT and p,p’-DDE were present at the highest concentrations. Markov chain models were used to assess the impact of tourism activities on Delphinus within the Hauraki Gulf. Foraging and resting bouts were significantly disrupted by boat interactions. Both the duration of bouts and the time spent in these two behavioural states decreased during boat interactions. Additionally, foraging dolphins took significantly longer to return to their initial behavioural state in the presence of a tour boat. Impacts identified are similar to those previously reported for the common bottlenose dolphin, a coastal species typically considered to be more susceptible to cumulative anthropogenic impacts. Data presented here reveal the nature and apparent susceptibility of New Zealand common dolphins to human-induced impacts, namely fisheries by-catch, pollution and tourism. This in conjunction with taxonomic uncertainty, lack of abundance estimates and the year-round use of inshore waters for feeding, clearly warrants immediate attention from managers. Furthermore, the current threat classification of New Zealand Delphinus should be reconsidered in light of population uncertainties, and in view of the susceptibly to human-induced impacts revealed by the present study.

Common dolphins (genus Delphinus) are poorly understood within New Zealand waters. Prior to this study, most information relating to the taxonomy, population structure, diet and pollutant loads of this genus relied upon untested assumptions. Furthermore, factors affecting the occurrence, demographics and habitat use of common dolphins in the Hauraki Gulf remained unknown. This lack of empirical data has resulted in the inadequate recognition and management of New Zealand Delphinus. Inappropriately classified by the New Zealand Threat Classification System, the anthropogenic impacts that affect this genus have clearly been overlooked. The present study examines behaviour of common dolphins in the Hauraki Gulf and details analyses undertaken on tissue samples collected from around New Zealand. Results detailed here challenge many of the untested assumptions about this genus within New Zealand waters. The taxonomy of New Zealand common dolphins was assessed using 92 samples analysed for 577 base pairs (bps) of the mtDNA control region (D-loop). New Zealand samples were compared with 177 published sequences from eight other populations from around the world. New Zealand Delphinus exhibited a high genetic variability, sharing haplotypes with both short- (D. delphis) and long-beaked (D. capensis) populations. Indeed, the New Zealand population showed significant genetic differentiation when compared with most other populations world-wide. Furthermore, intrapopulation analyses revealed significant genetic differentiation between Hauraki Gulf individuals and other common dolphins sampled within New Zealand waters. Results suggest habitat choice and site fidelity may play a role in shaping the fragmented population structure of New Zealand Delphinus. Data relating to the occurrence and demographics of common dolphins in the Hauraki Gulf region were collected during boat-based surveys between February 2002 and January 2005. In total, 719 independent encounters, involving one to > 300 common dolphins were recorded. Dolphin presence was significantly affected by month, latitude and depth. Group size varied significantly by month, season, depth, sea surface temperature (SST) and latitude, and was highly skewed towards smaller groups comprising fewer than 50 animals. Calves were observed throughout the year but were most prevalent in the austral summer months of December and January. Group composition was significantly affected by month, season, depth and SST. The yearround occurrence and social organisation of Delphinus in Hauraki Gulf waters suggest this region is an important nursery and potential calving area. The effects of diel, season, depth, sea surface temperature, and group size and composition on dolphin behaviour were investigated using activity budgets. Foraging and social were the most and least frequently observed behaviours, respectively. A correlation between group size and behaviour was evident, although behaviour did not vary with the composition of dolphin groups. Resting, milling and socialising animals were more frequently observed in smaller groups. Foraging behaviour was prevalent in both small and large groups, suggesting foraging plasticity exists within this population. Behaviour differed between single- and multi-species groups, with foraging more frequent in mixed-species aggregations, indicating the primary mechanism for association is likely prey-related. Stomach contents analysed for forty-two stranded and eleven commercially by-caught individuals collected from around North Island, New Zealand between 1997 and 2006, revealed arrow squid (Nototodarus spp.), jack mackerel (Trachurus spp.) and anchovy (Engraulis australis) as the most prevalent prey. Stranded individuals and dolphins bycaught within neritic waters fed on both neritic and oceanic prey. Moreover, a mixed prey composition was evident in the diet of common dolphins by-caught in oceanic waters, suggesting inshore/offshore movements of New Zealand Delphinus on a diel basis. Additionally, prey differences were also evident in the stomach contents of common dolphins sampled from within the Hauraki Gulf. Trace elements, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and organochlorine (OC) pesticide levels were determined in five stranded and fourteen by-caught Delphinus sampled from around New Zealand between 1999 and 2005. Generally, levels of trace elements were low. However, concentrations of OC pesticides were similar in range to those previously reported for Hector’s (Cephalorhyncus hectori) and common bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). Organochlorine pesticides dieldrin, hexachlorobenzene (HCB), o,p’-DDT and p,p’-DDE were present at the highest concentrations. Markov chain models were used to assess the impact of tourism activities on Delphinus within the Hauraki Gulf. Foraging and resting bouts were significantly disrupted by boat interactions. Both the duration of bouts and the time spent in these two behavioural states decreased during boat interactions. Additionally, foraging dolphins took significantly longer to return to their initial behavioural state in the presence of a tour boat. Impacts identified are similar to those previously reported for the common bottlenose dolphin, a coastal species typically considered to be more susceptible to cumulative anthropogenic impacts. Data presented here reveal the nature and apparent susceptibility of New Zealand common dolphins to human-induced impacts, namely fisheries by-catch, pollution and tourism. This in conjunction with taxonomic uncertainty, lack of abundance estimates and the year-round use of inshore waters for feeding, clearly warrants immediate attention from managers. Furthermore, the current threat classification of New Zealand Delphinus should be reconsidered in light of population uncertainties, and in view of the susceptibly to human-induced impacts revealed by the present study.

Common dolphins (genus Delphinus) are poorly understood within New Zealand waters. Prior to this study, most information relating to the taxonomy, population structure, diet and pollutant loads of this genus relied upon untested assumptions. Furthermore, factors affecting the occurrence, demographics and habitat use of common dolphins in the Hauraki Gulf remained unknown. This lack of empirical data has resulted in the inadequate recognition and management of New Zealand Delphinus. Inappropriately classified by the New Zealand Threat Classification System, the anthropogenic impacts that affect this genus have clearly been overlooked. The present study examines behaviour of common dolphins in the Hauraki Gulf and details analyses undertaken on tissue samples collected from around New Zealand. Results detailed here challenge many of the untested assumptions about this genus within New Zealand waters. The taxonomy of New Zealand common dolphins was assessed using 92 samples analysed for 577 base pairs (bps) of the mtDNA control region (D-loop). New Zealand samples were compared with 177 published sequences from eight other populations from around the world. New Zealand Delphinus exhibited a high genetic variability, sharing haplotypes with both short- (D. delphis) and long-beaked (D. capensis) populations. Indeed, the New Zealand population showed significant genetic differentiation when compared with most other populations world-wide. Furthermore, intrapopulation analyses revealed significant genetic differentiation between Hauraki Gulf individuals and other common dolphins sampled within New Zealand waters. Results suggest habitat choice and site fidelity may play a role in shaping the fragmented population structure of New Zealand Delphinus. Data relating to the occurrence and demographics of common dolphins in the Hauraki Gulf region were collected during boat-based surveys between February 2002 and January 2005. In total, 719 independent encounters, involving one to > 300 common dolphins were recorded. Dolphin presence was significantly affected by month, latitude and depth. Group size varied significantly by month, season, depth, sea surface temperature (SST) and latitude, and was highly skewed towards smaller groups comprising fewer than 50 animals. Calves were observed throughout the year but were most prevalent in the austral summer months of December and January. Group composition was significantly affected by month, season, depth and SST. The yearround occurrence and social organisation of Delphinus in Hauraki Gulf waters suggest this region is an important nursery and potential calving area. The effects of diel, season, depth, sea surface temperature, and group size and composition on dolphin behaviour were investigated using activity budgets. Foraging and social were the most and least frequently observed behaviours, respectively. A correlation between group size and behaviour was evident, although behaviour did not vary with the composition of dolphin groups. Resting, milling and socialising animals were more frequently observed in smaller groups. Foraging behaviour was prevalent in both small and large groups, suggesting foraging plasticity exists within this population. Behaviour differed between single- and multi-species groups, with foraging more frequent in mixed-species aggregations, indicating the primary mechanism for association is likely prey-related. Stomach contents analysed for forty-two stranded and eleven commercially by-caught individuals collected from around North Island, New Zealand between 1997 and 2006, revealed arrow squid (Nototodarus spp.), jack mackerel (Trachurus spp.) and anchovy (Engraulis australis) as the most prevalent prey. Stranded individuals and dolphins bycaught within neritic waters fed on both neritic and oceanic prey. Moreover, a mixed prey composition was evident in the diet of common dolphins by-caught in oceanic waters, suggesting inshore/offshore movements of New Zealand Delphinus on a diel basis. Additionally, prey differences were also evident in the stomach contents of common dolphins sampled from within the Hauraki Gulf. Trace elements, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and organochlorine (OC) pesticide levels were determined in five stranded and fourteen by-caught Delphinus sampled from around New Zealand between 1999 and 2005. Generally, levels of trace elements were low. However, concentrations of OC pesticides were similar in range to those previously reported for Hector’s (Cephalorhyncus hectori) and common bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). Organochlorine pesticides dieldrin, hexachlorobenzene (HCB), o,p’-DDT and p,p’-DDE were present at the highest concentrations. Markov chain models were used to assess the impact of tourism activities on Delphinus within the Hauraki Gulf. Foraging and resting bouts were significantly disrupted by boat interactions. Both the duration of bouts and the time spent in these two behavioural states decreased during boat interactions. Additionally, foraging dolphins took significantly longer to return to their initial behavioural state in the presence of a tour boat. Impacts identified are similar to those previously reported for the common bottlenose dolphin, a coastal species typically considered to be more susceptible to cumulative anthropogenic impacts. Data presented here reveal the nature and apparent susceptibility of New Zealand common dolphins to human-induced impacts, namely fisheries by-catch, pollution and tourism. This in conjunction with taxonomic uncertainty, lack of abundance estimates and the year-round use of inshore waters for feeding, clearly warrants immediate attention from managers. Furthermore, the current threat classification of New Zealand Delphinus should be reconsidered in light of population uncertainties, and in view of the susceptibly to human-induced impacts revealed by the present study.

An intertidal population of the anaspidean Aplysia dactylomela Rang was followed for three consecutive years at the Leigh Marine Reserve, North Auckland, New Zealand. Field assessments were made of recruitment, growth (by recapture of tagged individuals), density, crawling rate, gonad index and mortality. These data allowed monthly estimates of the entire population within the entire study area (2.76 ha) to be made. Complementary laboratory studies investigated acceptable foods and an energy budget including data on energy of the food, growth rates, egestion, respiration and assimilation efficiency were also obtained in the laboratory. In conjunction with these studies, field work on the algal food of A. dactylomela (species of Laurencia) elucidated the entities present, their separate yearly changes in biomass and the causes. From this information, data on food requirements for A. dactylomela.ha-1 month-1 are contrasted with standing crop estimates for Laurencia spp. in the same units to permit consideration of the theoretical grazing effects of A. dactylomela. Several lines of evidence show this environment to be suboptimal for A. dactylomela. storms account for the greatest mortality, but some losses are due to predation by the asteroid Coscinasterias calamaria (Gray). Few individuals reach reproductive maturity and the population is not self-recruiting. An intertidal population of a second opisthobranch, the Cephalaspidean Haminoea zelandiae (Gray in Dieffenbach) was followed for three consecutive years at Motukaraka Island, Hauraki Gulf, New Zealand. Field determinations of growth, annual abundance and reproductive cycles were made. The cryptogamic flora at Motukaraka Island has been characterised and annual patterns of cover and distribution presented for five major seasonal components. The relationship between Haminoea zelandiae and these algae is considered. Additional studies on two less-common anaspideans were carried out. Field data on breeding, growth and density are given for Aplysia parvula Mörch which exists in separate, spatially-isolated intertidal and subtidal populations at Goat Island Bay. For these two populations differences exist in diet, colouration, size distribution, growth and survivorship. The intertidal habitat is marginal whereas the subtidal is close to being optimal. Bursatella leachii Blainville shows variable annual recruitment to the cyanophyte Lyngbya majuscula intertidally at Motukaraka Island. Growth rates have been determined for field and laboratory populations. In the field a deliberate offshore migration takes place whilst L. majuscula is still abundant. Speculations on the possibilities and causes for migrations amongst opisthobranchs are discussed. A taxonomic revision of the New Zealand Anaspidea follows as an appendix. There are eight sea hares authentically recorded for New Zealand: Aplysia (Pruvotaplysia) parvula Mörch 1863; A. (Varria) dactylomela Rang 1828; A. (V.) keraudreni Rang 1828; (V.) extraordinaria (Allan 1932); A. (Aplysia) juliana (Quoy & Gaimard 1832); Bursatella leachii Blainville 1817; Stylocheilus longicauda (Quoy & Gaimard 1825); Dolabrifera dolabrifera (Cuvier 1817). For each species a complete synonymy is given as well as full description, locality records and discussion.

This thesis presents a detailed late Tertiary and early Quaternary pollen record from two c. 40 m long sedimentary cores (the Patiki cores) from west Auckland. The cores consist of slightly to highly carbonaceous clays, with a thick sand incursion at mid-depth. The sediments below the sand incursion are aged through palynostratigraphy as mid-late Pliocene (Hautawan). The sediments above the sand incursion have numerous interbedded tephras, and are aged through a combination of Isothermal Plateau Fission Track dating, palaeomagnetism and orbital tuning to the marine oxygen isotope record as 1.0 – 1.4 Ma (MIS 28 - 45, Marahauan substage). The Tertiary pollen record portrays regional vegetation assemblages of extinct Nothofagus brassii-type species and modern-day podocarps, with local modern-day oligotrophic mire assemblages. A cool climatic phase is indicated by a period of dominance of an extinct member of the Proteaceae. However, the duration of this interval cannot be determined due to a lack of numerical age control for the record. The Quaternary pollen record consists of mostly extant pollen types. It shows multiple compositional shifts from Nothofagus-dominated to conifer-dominated regional vegetation, with local oligotrophic mire vegetation except for a fully aquatic phase at mid-depth (MIS 35). The primary axis score curve of a detrended correspondence analysis (DCA) of the pollen record was correlated to the marine isotope record, and shows that the Nothofagus-dominated intervals correspond to cool climate stages, while the conifer-dominated intervals correspond to warm stages. The strongest cool stage maximum is indicated at 12 - 13 m depth (MIS 34), where the vegetation consists of Fuscospora, Prumnopitys taxifolia and heath shrubs. The strongest warm stage maximum is indicated at c. 9 m depth (MIS 31) where the vegetation consists of Dacrydium forest. Astronomically forced climate change is an important driving force behind vegetation composition changes portrayed in the Quaternary pollen record. The majority of warm stage maxima inferred in the pollen record (conifer-dominated intervals) coincide with periods of maximum obliquity, and vice versa for inferred cool stage maxima (Nothofagus-dominated intervals). The modulating effect of eccentricity on precession is influential on the pollen record during MIS 31 and 34. The relationship between selected climate indicator taxa and calculated insolation values indicates that reduced seasonality in Auckland during warm climate stages favours Agathis, Dacrydium, Phyllocladus and Halocarpus, while increased seasonality during cool climate stages favours Nothofagus ‘fusca'-type, Nothofagus menziesii, and Prumnopitys taxifolia. In both situations the trees are probably responding to a combination of changes in mean global temperatures and seasonality, and reacting according to their own adaptive responses to astronomically driven climate change. The Quaternary pollen record contains plant mixtures that do not occur in New Zealand today, for example Agathis australis with Nothofagus menziesii, and Halocarpus bidwillii / biformis. The climate was probably cooler than it is in Auckland today, but never as cold as the last glacial maximum in Auckland when grasslands were present. Under more equable climatic conditions, with less extreme glacial and interglacial cycles, populations of comparably 'warm' and 'cool' climate taxa were probably able to shift throughout the region and mixed to a greater extent than is currently observed. The overall vegetation response to climate change (particularly above MIS 36) is analogous to that recorded in northern New Zealand in the late Pleistocene, and supports a negligible change in climatic preference of the main canopy species since the early Quaternary. The phytosociological idiosynchracies in the pollen record are not inconsistent with the known tolerance limits of the taxa involved, or with the individualistic nature of vegetation composition.

Fragmentation of forest habitat by urban and rural development has had profound effects on the distribution and abundance of many native species; however, little is known about the ecological processes driving patterns in community structure (species richness and composition) of host-specialised herbivores in modified habitats. I examined patterns in community structure of 9 specialist and 19 generalist invertebrate herbivores of cabbage trees (Cordyline australis Laxmanniaceae) across a highly-modified landscape. I found that, although species richness of specialists was highest in forest sites, the majority of host-specialised species were not restricted to forest habitats and were as widespread as many generalists. In terms of site occupancy, only two specialist and four generalist species were rare. I show that patterns of species occupancy and abundance reflect differing susceptibility to habitat modification, with landscape-level variation an important predictor of abundance for nearly all species. When species occurrences and life history traits were considered I did not find strong evidence for the importance of dispersal ability, which suggests that habitat variability had a stronger organising effect on the community. In a replicated common garden experiment, I found distinct regional patterns in the community structure of the specialist invertebrates occurring on different phylogenetic groups of C. australis. In contrast, community structure of generalist herbivores did not differ significantly among host genotypes. I speculate these patterns are due to historical changes in the distribution of cabbage trees in the Southern phylogenetic region that caused specialised herbivores to become locally adapted on populations of low genetic diversity following expansion after the last glacial maximum. However, this consistent selection pressure did not occur in the Northern region where C. australis habitat has been more consistently available over the past tens of thousands of years, reflected in higher host genetic diversity. This study has advanced our understanding of the patterns in community structure of an indigenous, host-specialised fauna in a highly modified and fragmented urban and rural landscapes.

The New Zealand (NZ) sea lion Phocarctos hookeri is the only pinniped endemic to NZ with a population of approximately 12,000 individuals. Its breeding range is currently restricted to NZ sub-Antarctic islands, and it has failed to recolonise its pristine distribution around the NZ main islands despite its protection since 1881. The current hypothesis is that the population growth of this pinniped is limited by the distribution of suitable prey on the Auckland Islands (50°30'S, 166°E) shelf, and by the direct and indirect pressure exerted by the arrow squid Nototodarus sloani fishery. However, this hypothesis has not been fully tested to date as there has been limited information on the diet of the NZ sea lion and their potential prey. The objective of this thesis is to analyse the diet of NZ sea lions over several years with particular emphasis on the most reproductively important segment of the population: lactating females. This thesis provides the first quantification by percentage mass of the diet of NZ sea lion using a combination of stomach content analysis, qualitative fatty acid (FA) analysis, and quantitative FA signature analysis (QFASA). Stomach contents and blubber FAs were analysed from 121 individuals incidentally caught (by-caught) in the southern arrow squid fishery from the years 1997 to 2006. The blubber FAs of 78 freeranging lactating females captured at Enderby Island, Auckland Islands, were also examined during January and February of 2000 to 2005. Data obtained from both stomach analysis and QFASA indicate that arrow squid, rattails Macrouridae, hoki Macruronus novaezelandiae and red cod Pseudophycis bachus are key prey species for NZ sea lions in the Auckland Islands region. Because these prey species live mostly at depths greater than 200 m, lactating females must undertake long foraging trips and dive regularly to greater depths than other sea lion species. Data from QFASA indicates that this foraging pattern is conducted over an extended period through the summer and autumn. The daily food requirement of a lactating female was estimated by a simple energetic model to be greater than 20% of its body mass. During years of low arrow squid recruitment such as 1999 and 2001, the amounts of squid required by the NZ sea lion population may have been similar to the amount harvested by the fishery, suggesting that resource competition is likely to occur between the arrow squid fishery and NZ sea lions in years of low squid abundance. Half of the fishing activity of the southern squid fishery occurs in the north of the Auckland Islands shelf where NZ sea lions forage, leading to incidental captures every year. This research emphasises that management of the NZ sea lion must not only consider the direct interactions with the arrow squid fishery, but also the likelihood of food resource competition between the fishery and NZ sea lions.

Commercial pine plantations made up of exotic tree species are increasingly recognised as habitats that can contribute significantly to the conservation of indigenous biodiversity in New Zealand. Encouraging this biodiversity by employing sympathetic forestry management techniques not only offers benefits for indigenous flora and fauna but can also be economically advantageous for the forestry industry. The New Zealand falcon (Falco novaeseelandiae) or Karearea, is a threatened species, endemic to the islands of New Zealand, that has recently been discovered breeding in pine plantations. This research determines the ecological requirements of New Zealand falcons in this habitat, enabling recommendations for sympathetic forestry management to be made. Plantation forests that create a mosaic of pine stand ages across a plantation, offer suitable habitat for breeding New Zealand falcons by providing abundant nest sites, promoting high abundances of avian prey and creating favourable conditions for hunting. The diet of falcons within pine forests consisted primarily of birds, of which the majority were exotic passerines. Prey abundances were highest along pine stand edges. Both sexes preferentially hunted along pine stand edges between stands less than four years old and stands more than 20 years old. Pairs also preferentially nested along these borders, particularly within and along the edges of pine stands less than two years old. Within pine stands, nest sites were always located on the ground. Introduced predators and some forestry operations negatively affected breeding success. Nevertheless, productivity was higher than recorded for other habitats and female falcons were recorded successfully breeding in their first year for the first time. High prey densities and availabilities are suggested as the primary explanation for this. The extent of juvenile dispersal strongly suggests that pine plantations supplement populations in surrounding areas where falcons are in decline. This research demonstrates that changes to the existing forestry operational practices can influence the success of the breeding population. This research establishes that if commercial pine plantations are suitably managed, they can support extremely high falcon densities. Plantation forests therefore have a significant role to play in the future conservation of this species.

Kakapo (Strigops habroptilus) are a flightless, nocturnal parrot endemic to New Zealand. Thought to be extinct within their natural range, kakapo are currently listed as nationally critical. The current population of 86 individuals is managed by the Department of Conservation’s National Kakapo Team on two offshore islands in southern New Zealand, with all females of breeding age on Codfish Island (Whenua Hou). Kakapo only breed once every two to five years, coinciding with the mast fruiting of specific plant species. On Codfish Island, the proportion of adult female kakapo that breed in rimu (Dacrydium cupressinum) fruiting years is dependent on the quantity of fruit produced, with fewer females attempting to breed during low mast years. The purpose of this research is to investigate why only some adult female kakapo breed in low rimu fruiting years on Codfish Island, specifically assessing if foraging home range size and/or habitat selection influence breeding. A total of 506 location points were collected at night for 18 adult female kakapo between March and May 2006. These were used to estimate foraging home ranges and to assess if kakapo select for particular types of vegetation. Ecological Niche Factor Analysis was used to determine the relative importance of habitat variables in the distribution of female kakapo and to predict areas of suitable breeding habitat when rimu fruit is limited. The breeding success of individuals in 2005, a low rimu mast year, was used to identify if differences in home ranges or habitat selection occurred between breeding and non-breeding females. The large variation in foraging home range sizes recorded in this research was consistent with previous studies. Foraging home range sizes were on average twice the size for breeders than for non-breeders, suggesting that adult female kakapo may be limited in their ability to breed by the size of the area they occupy. Adult female kakapo did not randomly use vegetation on Codfish Island as some vegetation types were not used, while others were common inside foraging home ranges. Adult female kakapo utilise a broad niche and are capable of surviving in a wide range of habitats. However, breeding females were more specialised in their niche requirements than non-breeders, with breeders utilising areas with higher abundances of mature rimu trees. Females occurred in high elevation, flat areas of the island but this may have been because this is where appropriate vegetation types occurred. During low rimu mast years, breeding adult females were predicted to occupy habitat in high elevation, plateau areas with a high abundance of rimu. Areas identified as sub-optimal habitat for breeding included the coastal areas, the lower elevation area of the main valley and some ridgelines. The home ranges of all 10 breeding females contained some optimal habitat, while females who did not breed were more likely to be located in sub-optimal habitat. Although there were significant areas of optimal breeding habitat not occupied by adult female kakapo, other kakapo may have been present in these areas. To increase the proportion of females that breed in low rimu mast years, it may be necessary to remove sub-adult females or surplus adult males living in optimal breeding habitat from the island. Alternatively, females in sub-optimal breeding habitat could be fed supplementary foods or transferred to other islands where there is unoccupied suitable breeding habitat available.

The present study is part of the Kaupapa Kereru Programme. The main aim of the programme is to increase the numbers and range of kereru (Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae) on Banks Peninsula. Home ranges, movements, diet and habitat use of 15 kereru captured in Hinewai Reserve, Banks Peninsula, were investigated from February 2005 to February 2006. Hinewai Reserve is the largest tract of regenerating native forest in a highly modified urban-rural landscape. Phenology of 11 plant species predicted to be key kereru foods, was studied to determine the pattern of food availability in Hinewai Reserve. Twelve radio-tagged kereru resided in the Hinewai Reserve study site (Otanerito Valley and Sleepy Bay) and three resided in Akaroa. Ripe fruit was available from January to August; the height of the fruiting season was in autumn. The bulk of new leaf growth occurred in spring and early summer although new leaves were available on broom and tree lucerne year round. Peak flowering occurred in spring. Kereru in Akaroa ate a total of 21 plant species; six of these species were native and 15 introduced. Kereru in the Hinewai Reserve study site ate a total of 26 plant species; 20 of these species were native and six introduced. Fruit was preferred when readily available. Native fruit appeared to be preferred over fruit of introduced species in Akaroa, where both types were available. New foliage of introduced legumes and deciduous species appeared to be preferred over new foliage of native species at both sites during winter and spring. These species were important food sources prior to the breeding season and may be selected specifically for their nitrogen and protein content. Food is currently not a limiting factor for kereru survival or reproductive success. Considerable variation in the use and preference of vegetation types of individual kereru made it difficult to identify trends in habitat selection. Use and preference for many vegetation types was seasonal; this was certainly because of the availability of food species included in or close to these vegetation types. Overall, native vegetation communities were used more than communities dominated by introduced species and forest communities were used more than non-forest communities. Kanuka (Kunzea ericoides) was used most often for non-feeding activities and 67% of observed nests were built in kanuka. Annual home ranges and core areas in the Hinewai Reserve study site (mean of 15.9 and 2 ha respectively) were significantly larger than those found in Lyttelton Harbour, Banks Peninsula in previous research (mean of 8 and 0.08 ha respectively). Home ranges were larger when fruit was eaten, than when no fruit was eaten indicating that kereru are more sedentary when feeding on foliage. Kereru from the Hinewai Reserve study site made no excursions >5 km and no daily movements >2 km. Kereru from Akaroa and Sleepy Bay travelled into Otanerito Valley to feed on horopito in autumn, indicating that there may have been a lack of fruit in their local areas during autumn. No kereru in Otanerito Valley travelled outside of the valley. The distribution of high quality food sources is likely to have caused the observed differences in home range and core area size between localities. Kereru in Lyttelton Harbour may have been restricted to small patches of high quality resources in a study area consisting largely of unsuitable habitat. In Hinewai Reserve, high quality resources were spread over larger areas and were more uniformly distributed. The density of kereru was unknown at both study sites, and this confounded assessment of habitat quality. However, it is likely that the Hinewai Reserve study site would support a higher number of kereru. The main factor limiting population growth in the present study was failure of nests at the egg and chick stage. The fledge rate was 17%. Two of fifteen adult kereru died. Control of predators should be the first aspect of management that is focused on, and will almost certainly increase reproductive success of kereru and loss of breeding adults. As the population of kereru on Banks Peninsula increases due to predator control in existing kereru habitat, food may become a limiting factor. Habitat can be improved for kereru by planting a diverse range of plant species that provide food year-round. Native fruiting species are greatly recommended for habitat enhancement and should be selected so that fruit is available for as much of the year as possible. Native and introduced legumes should also be made available as foods for winter and spring. As most land on Banks Peninsula is privately owned, co-operation and enthusiasm of the community is critical for successful management. Information and support needs to be given to landowners wishing to enhance their properties for kereru.