This thesis explores the potential of the 'Cognition and Culture' approach to serve as a conceptual framework to facilitate an integrated study of the contents of social group stereotypes and the cognitive processes and structures underpinning stereotyping. More specifically, it explores the extent to which evolved cognitive predispositions may shape the contents of stereotypes, and facilitate the naturalization of status differences between groups. Experiments 1-3 utilized the Minimal Group Paradigm to investigate whether cognitive predispositions shape the contents of social group stereotypes. Experiment 1 provided evidence for a default stereotyping mode based on two dimensions found to capture social group stereotypes universally: competence and morality/warmth. Participants rated members of their own group as competent and moral/warm. Experiment 2 provided evidence for a default status stereotyping mode. Participants rated members of high status groups as competent and members of low status groups as incompetent. Experiment 3 replicated the findings of experiment 2 using an implicit measure of stereotyping. These are the first experiments to provide evidence for stereotyping in minimal groups. The final three experiments explored whether humans hold essentialist beliefs about social status as this mode of category representation may facilitate the purported ability of stereotypes to naturalise status differences between groups. In experiment 4 it was found that status differences trigger essentialist beliefs about social groups. Experiment 5 explored essentialist beliefs about group-based social status using two thought experiment paradigms. No evidence was found for essentialist beliefs about group-based social status. However, there was an indication from participants' qualitative responses that these paradigms were not optimal. A final follow-up experiment found evidence for essentialist beliefs about group-based social status using the soul exchange paradigm. Implications for the social psychology of stereotyping, the 'Cognition and Culture' approach and social policy are discussed.

Through a discussion of Marx in particular and an extended overview of social theory in general the central questions from which I start are posed: Rejecting individualist models of the social (either positivist or hermeneutic) as also teleological accounts of it, structural/objectivist models such as early Parsons' or Althusser's are considered to be the most advanced. However, these approaches cannot theorise either the emergence of the new in history or the possibility of active agency from the part of social actors. Both problems are closely interwoven with the conceptualisation of the social as closed and fully determinable structural entities. An alternative approach theorising social structural entities as open, and thus avoiding these problems is identified. It can be seen as evolving from the general statements of Derrida to the specific theorisations of the social presented by Laclau and Mouffe and, in a more developed way, by Castoriadis (who provides also a theorisation of "autonomy"). However, the way this "openness" should be theorised remains unclarified. To avoid conceiving it as operating on a transcendental level, it has to be located within the (re)production of the social through individual action, i.e. within a theory of "structuration". Such theories of structuration have been presented by Gid-dens and Bourdieu, but in a partial and insufficient way. However, the connection between the openness of the social and the modality of the (individual) unconscious Cas-toriadis refers to, indicates an alternative. This alternative is explored through an analysis of Freud and psychoanalytic theory. It is argued that the psychoanalytic theorisation of the psyche provides a theory of the reproduction of the social through the individual. The necessary indeterminacy implied by the operation of this reproduction partly through the (individual) unconscious (a level with a specific modality), and the relative autonomy of the conscious/rational ego imply that this reproduction is never fully determined. Thus the "openness" of the social can be more precisely conceptualised and the questions of agency and history can be addressed in a more fruitful way.

The world is becoming increasingly urbanised, bringing the potential for more sustainable and equitable distribution of resources. However, at present urban contexts are often poorly managed, with the negative impacts unevenly distributed towards the poor. This study supports the integration of organisations of the poor as key actors in civil society to advocate for equity in urban environments. However, it also highlights the need for a better understanding of how these organisations develop in different contexts, how they are supported and what they mean for the social capital of the communities they are part of; in particular, how they support marginalised groups to engage in processes of collective action and representation. This study uses a comparison of two types of large-scale organisation of the urban poor operating in Kisumu, Kenya to investigate their role in transforming social capital and how this is affected by their relationship with external partners. It explores what makes a context more enabling for large-scale organisations to form and engage in decision-making, and how the collective action processes they encompass may inhibit or support less dominant groups. Ethnographic, participatory and qualitative methods were used in the field with members of the organisations and key informants to explore the structure of the organisations, how they are viewed and their value for those internal and external to them. Data was analysed qualitatively and quantitatively and contrasted against secondary data to give a rich understanding of the context and the organisations studied. The study finds evidence that organisations of the poor can play an important role in social capital development in urban environments. However, it also proposes a new role for development partners in relatively non-enabling urban contexts, such as Kisumu. The findings suggest that this approach should seek to transform existing, rather than build new, social capital. Furthermore, greater attention to the structures and processes of collective action could encourage change in systems to increase valuable social capital for marginalised groups.

The Portfolio comprises a collection of essays and reports written during the three years of training on the Practitioner Doctorate Course in Psychotherapeutic and Counselling Psychology at the University of Surrey. It consists of three separate dossiers, pertaining to my academic study, therapeutic practice, and research, each containing a sample of my work, selected to reflect my interests and demonstrate the skills and competencies I have acquired during my training. In the Academic Dossier I present three essays, written in consecutive years, each examining a particular aspect of the model in which I was working at the time: the first explores the humanistic concept of 'unconditional positive regard'; the second investigates the concept of 'containment' from a psychodynamic perspective; and the third looks at the role of the therapeutic relationship in Acceptance and Commitment Therapy, a third-wave cognitive behavioural therapy. The Therapeutic Practice Dossier highlights my clinical experience during the course, providing a brief description of my three clinical placements. In addition, it includes my Final Clinical Paper, which is a reflective account of my personal and professional development over the course of my training. Finally, the Research Dossier presents three pieces of research, each using a different methodology, exploring our experience of the natural environment. The first report is a literature review, examining the evidence for the claim that all human beings have an innate affiliation with nature; the second study adopts a grounded theory methodology and focuses specifically on the experiences of adolescents in natural environments; and the third employs an experimental approach to further investigate the restorative effects of natural environments amongst teenagers.

This thesis examines how young people define and use risk in their everyday lives. A constructivist methodology was adopted and eleven focus group discussions were conducted in Belfast, Northern Ireland. Focus groups were utilised to capture the 'group effect. and how it relates to the construction of risk. The research allowed young people to nominate and define the risks discussed in the research allowing for both positive and negative risks to emerge. Ultimately, the goal of this research was to capture young people's decision making processes whether to participate in risk activities or not. This research challenges traditional notions that risk is a negative construct which is rationally avoided using three risk theories; (1) risk society thesis (espoused by Ulrich Beck), (2) cultural theory (championed by Mary Douglas) and (3) governmentality (developed by Michel Foucault). The analysis utilises a variety of risk behaviours (as defined by the respondents) to construct a more comprehensive understanding of risk. Three analysis chapters are presented which discuss (1) risk, power and regulation, (2) risk, uncertainty and otherness, and (3) risk, subjectivity and positive risk. What emerge are dichotomies within and between the theory and findings which are relevant to the themes of knowledge, control and experience. These dichotomies are mapped against three types of intervention (1) Cross community programmes, (2) youth sport initiatives and (3) formal education and used to form recommendations to inform policy and practice.

The principle element of a democratic society is the belief held by its citizens that governance institutions are transparent, accountable and are influenced through stakeholder interests. In particular, confidence resides in a belief that representation models based on democratic elections have the capacity to aggregate the singular voices of the electorate into a colleCtive endeavour. The advancement of Democratic Dialogue Practices (OOPs) represents a move away from the exclusiveness of this electoral model through offering governments new opportuniti~s to engage with citizens through multiple forms of· facilitated dialogue. DDP specifically targets those least likely to engage within governance strategies aiming to ensure the inclusion of participants in a wide variety of transparent, accountable and inclusive dialogue practices. Central to the focus of this thesis is the facilitated practice of DDP and therein the dialogue of the small group discussion. The aim is to explore the existence of the 'Group Polarization Phenomenon' (GPP) and its implications for DDP and the promotion of a 'culture of democracy'.

No description available.

This thesis seeks to understand how social capital develops within voluntary sports clubs. It adopts a micro-perspective to examine how social capital, defined as ‘the ability to secure resources by virtue of membership in social networks or larger social structures’ (Portes and Landolt, 2000: 532), emerges from social interaction within voluntary sports club contexts. The thesis is informed by a critical realist perspective that focuses on the underlying social mechanisms involved and how they operate differently for different groups and individuals in different circumstances. The empirical analysis, which represents the main contribution of the thesis, is based on three case studies of voluntary sports clubs in the UK. These case studies were carried out over 18 months and involved a number of in-depth interviews with members and organisers and periods of observation at each of the clubs. The analysis shows that members accessed a range of resources through the social ties they formed at the clubs. Interestingly, the analysis demonstrates that, as well as forming strong and weak ties, as standard network models would predict, members formed ‘compartmentally intimate’ ties at the clubs: strong ties that were domain-specific. The analysis reveals that several core mechanisms – reciprocity exchanges, enforceable trust, value introjection and bounded solidarity – operated at the clubs to develop social capital for members, but that these mechanisms were influenced in multiple ways by various elements of context. In particular, the analysis focuses on the socio-organisational context of the clubs and identifies several key elements, including the nature of the focal activity, the voluntariness of participation, the co-operative nature of engagement, the relative absence of hierarchy and the diversity of membership. Overall, the thesis provides support for an organisationally embedded view of social capital development and offers a rare example of critical realist research on social capital.

This thesis reports three studies which examined the components of intercultural competence, developed methods for measuring these components, examined how these components are related to each other, and examined differences in intercultural competence as a function of gender, age, minority vs. majority status and multilingual status. Study 1 developed a set of quantitative scales for measuring the different components of intercultural competence using students from the University of Surrey, while Study 2 tested these scales further using students from the University of Kuwait. These two studies showed that 12 different components of intercultural competence could be measured using these scales. Study 3 used the same scales to collect data from secondary school students in Kuwait at the beginning and at the end of a school year. Study 3 showed that the intercultural competence of these school students did not develop over the year, and was not enhanced by an educational intervention. Study 3 also showed that the intercultural competence of these school students was sometimes but not always related to their attitudes to people from other cultural groups. Taken together, the three studies revealed that the components of intercultural competence can be measured using quantitative scales, that these components tend to be positively correlated with each other, and that females, older individuals, minority individuals and individuals who speak multiple languages tend to have higher levels of intercultural competence. However, intercultural competence does not always develop across the course of a single school year in the absence of intercultural training or intercultural experiences.

Intergenerational practice brings young and old people together with the aim of improving social relations. Over the last twenty years proponents in the UK have pursued policy changes in support of making these new connections along the life course. This research examined such developments in the City of Manchester during the latter half of that period, and focused on the implementation of Generations Together!, a programme funded by national government. The study reports on a mixed methods qualitative design structured through two case studies. One was based around the central domain of city policy-making, the other on the view from Gorton. a deprived neighbourhood in east Manchester. A critical review of the literature concerning generational consciousness and the life-course suggested that policies in favour of age integration can offer a challenging framework for both structural and relational change. A second review, of the literature relating to the evaluation of intergenerational practice in the UK, indicated the need to better understand intergenerationality in everyday community life. Documentary analysis suggests that Manchester moved somewhat abruptly from a collaborative linking of policy and practice to an approach focused on commissioning more target-driven work. In the field, over an eight-month period, data was gathered through observation, and by over 40 semi-structured interviews. Fieldwork in Gorton examined the impact of interventionist practice alongside the ongoing activities of small associations, and indicated the value of a community development approach to deploying a centrally-coordinated initiative to accomplish locally-determined goals. The thesis advances the concept of reflexive seniority to identify the task older people face in accommodating new demands within the time-bound constraints of identity in later life. It offers a four-fold typology of generational exchange for which different practice responses would be required. Policy responses for Manchester and proposals for more extensive future research are outlined.