This thesis aimed to investigate self-other processes in social cognition. Contrary to the traditional approach of focusing on self-other processes within the confines of a single domain, this thesis highlights the prominent role of these processes across different socio-cognitive domains. Three main empirical questions form the basis of the research reported here. The first is concerned with the extent to which self-other representations are shared across three different socio-cognitive abilities: the control of imitation, theory of mind, and visual perspective taking. The second relates to the neural underpinnings of self-other representations, in particular, the role of the temporoparietal junction (TPJ) during socio-cognitive processing. The third question examines the role of culture as a modulatory factor of self-other processes. The findings from Experiment 1, 3 and 4 showed a relationship between the control of imitation and visual perspective taking. This relationship seems to rely on the online control of co-activated self-other representations, which at the neural level are mediated by the TPJ (bilaterally). In Experiment 2 it was found that individuals with mirror-touch synaesthesia are impaired in the control of imitation but their performance on visual perspective taking and theory of mind is comparable with non-synaesthetes. It is hypothesised that atypical self-other processes in mirror-touch synaesthesia might be confined to situations in which representations of the ‘other’ should be inhibited, but not when they should be enhanced. Experiment 5 showed that acculturation strategies adopted by migrants modulate their imitative behaviour towards a member of the heritage vs. a member of the host culture. The diverse nature of the studies reported in this thesis shows the complexity of self-other processes in social cognition. Taken together, these findings demonstrate how adopting a wider approach to the investigation of self-other processes contributes towards a better understanding of the mechanisms underlying socio-cognitive abilities.

In this thesis, I develop a general framework of how people attribute responsibility. In this framework, people's responsibility attributions are modelled in terms of counterfactuals defined over a causal representation of the situation. A person is predicted to be held responsible to the extent that their action made a difference to the outcome. Accordingly, when attributing responsibility we compare what actually happened with the outcome in a simulated counterfactual world in which the person's action had been different. However, a person can still be held responsible for an outcome even if their action made no difference in the actual situation. Responsibility attributions are sensitive to whether a person's action would have made a difference in similar counterfactual situations. Generally, responsibility decreases with the number of events that would have needed to change from the actual situation in order to generate a counterfactual situation in which the person's action would have been pivotal. In addition to how close a person was to being pivotal, responsibility attributions are influenced by how critical a person's action was perceived prior to the outcome. The predictions derived from this general framework are tested in a series of experiments that manipulate a person's criticality and pivotality by varying the causal structure of the situation and the person's mental states. The results show that responsibility between the members of a group diffuses according to the causal structure which determines how individual contributions combine to yield a joint outcome. Differences in the group members' mental states, such as their knowledge about the situation, their expectations about each other's performance as well as their intentions, also affect attributions. Finally, I demonstrate how this general framework can be extended to model attributions for domains in which people have rich, intuitive theories that go beyond what can be expressed with simple causal models.

The thesis proposes measuring social capital by means of Principal Components Analysis (PCA) and presents international social capital estimates for the late-nineteenth century in the form of a Social Development Index (SDI) for 1870 and 1890. The analysis is based on a nineteenth-century international database containing a wide range of socio-economic variables. These indicators are compared to midtwentieth century social indicators, facilitating the study of the evolution of social capital in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. One of the conclusions that arise from the PhD thesis is the persistence of social indicators in the medium term. In the very long run, a significant decline in the relative position of the Western European countries and the United States is found. The new series are then used as empirical evidence to show that comparative social evolution trajectories can improve economic performance predictions. In fact, the results show that the relationship between social development and per capita income already existed in the late-nineteenth century. This relationship upholds after controlling for foreign trade volume and structure, urbanization, education, quality of institutions, political stability, government expenditure, population growth, and climate. Finally, the thesis presents an application of the proposed SDI into an Economic Geography framework. In particular, it shows how a better definition of the formal and informal institutional setup can help testing economic geography hypothesis on international trade. In order to do this, indicators of access to markets are calculated for 1994 and other benchmark years going back to 1962 making use of bilateral trade data. Then, the proposed alternative socio-institutional measures illustrate how the importance of access to markets is not unconditional on the institutional setup. Poor government effectiveness undermines the positive benefits of geographical location. Only when a country reaches a certain threshold of institutional quality can it effectively benefit from location.

Some cross-cultural psychologists have shown differences in cognition between Eastern and Western cultures, described as holistic versus analytic (H-A) systems of thought. It is widely assumed that Buddhism has contributed to holistic cognition. This thesis explores holistic thought among Western Buddhists by integrating methods and theories mainly from cross-cultural and social psychology, but also the cognitive anthropology of religion. H-A reasoning among Buddhists, Anglicans and Secular-Humanists in the UK is investigated in a main experiment, providing good backing for hypothesised H-A group differences. Moreover, it supports a hypothesis about the effect of meditation on the categorisation of visual stimuli and strength of holistic beliefs. However, only explicit H-A measures are subject to religious context effects, as evident in their association with religiosity, the religious self-concept and religious integration. Inducing a Buddhist context through religious priming does not result in a holism shift. A follow-up study (2) uses pictorial primes and shows an interaction effect between priming condition and strength of Buddhist self-concepts on holistic beliefs. Study 3 clarifies religious versus secular differences that were found for the grouping measure used in Study 1 in a correlational design with measures of independence- interdependence, religious identification as well as attraction to Buddhist and Secular- Humanist ideas. It indicates that both self-selection and learning effects may account for secular vs religious H-A differences. The last experiment (Study 4) further develops so-called 'tolerance of contradictions' (TC) as an aspect of H-A cognition and introduces the cognitive anthropological concept of counterintuitive (Cl) beliefs. As expected, results show that religious groups have a higher tolerance of Cl. Furthermore, compared to normal or bizarre concepts. Cl content reduces TC only among secular individuals, and to some degree Anglicans, but has no such effect on Buddhists. Implications for cross-cultural psychology, the psychology of religion as well as the interdisciplinary field of 'cognition and culture' are discussed.

No description available.

According to the Poverty and Social Exclusion survey 2012, a sizeable minority of UK working parents identify lack of time due to paid work and childcare responsibilities and lack of resources as obstacles to achieving desired levels of social contact with friends and relatives. Drawing on a wide range of theories and evidence, this thesis explores these findings by carrying out in-depth quantitative analysis on the large body of information about parents' social contact, work patterns, time and economic resources, material and social deprivation contained in three large UK surveys. The findings from this thesis provide a strong rationale for focusing on parents' social contact with their personal communities (Pahl and Spencer, 2006) by showing that low levels of social contact with these are associated with reduced levels of social support; a crucial asset to maintaining psychological and physical wellbeing during stressful times. This thesis also finds that the busy schedules and tight budgets of some working parents can affect their social interactions, particularly with friends. Specifically, it shows that working fathers and mothers generally experience high levels of time scarcity because of paid and unpaid work and that this increases their likelihood of having low social contact with friends. In line with much of the social network literature, it also finds that despite their double shifts mothers generally manage to maintain higher levels of social contact with friends than fathers do. Finally, confirming some of the exploratory findings from the social exclusion literature (Millar, 2007), it shows that the relationship between poverty and social contact is complex, and uses theories articulated by Townsend (1978) and Walker (2014) to explain the low levels of social contact experienced by a sizeable minority of working parents just above the poverty line.

No description available.

This thesis explores the individual, relational and structural contributions to the desistance process as they occur within and between six individuals in Scotland who comprised a naturally forming group. Contemporary theoretical explanations of the desistance process share a tendency to view social relations as a by-product of, or interplay between, individual action and structure. Equally, contemporary methodological approaches to desistance research tend to study individuals rather than groups, precluding an analysis of the role of the group in shaping and affecting offending and desistance, and thus how individual, relational, cultural and social contexts influence onset, persistence, and desistance. The unique methodological approach of studying a naturally forming group in this thesis has generated new empirical and theoretical insights into the dynamics of offending and desistance. This study has revealed the role of friendship groups, intimate relationships and families of formation and employment in, differently, triggering individuals' reflexive evaluation of concerns, priorities and practices - resulting, variously, in a diminution of the desirability of offending, or in influencing, consolidating and sustaining commitments to desist. Both the manner of relating and the reciprocal and mutual orientation for these individuals-in-relation towards the maintenance of a given social relation emerged as significant in understanding the relational contributions to the change process. This thesis advances an alternative conceptual and investigative framework that gives proper recognition to individual actions, social relations and social systems and their particular inner characteristics, properties and influences. This thesis further extends current theoretical understandings of processes of desistance by elaborating what triggers reflexivity and what different forms of reflexivity entail, both of which have received limited attention in the literature to date.

This thesis focuses on social-affective dynamics in the formation and cohesion of a team working in a complex collaboration crossing government, non-profit, and business sectors. Cross-sector collaborations are increasingly used in solving complex problems, necessitating a better understanding of what keeps actors committed to working together when relational and time commitments become strained. While cognitive reasons and mechanics of team formation are important, equally important are social and emotional reasons individuals find to stay committed to each other and the powerful impact they could have together. Social and affective elements of group cohesion are interdependent with the rational-cognitive, yet they are under-represented in research on complex teams. To explore the mediating process of shared affect in building relational cohesion, micro-ethnographic research was deployed for a 7-month period in following a Collective Impact (CI) initiative to improve early childhood school readiness in a particular US community. This produced a rich cross-sector case study portraying what binds coalition actors to each other to achieve extraordinary commitment to collective action in addressing the community challenge. Extending previous research on person-to-group ties, the findings reveal type and frequency of social exchange are insufficient to understanding the emergence of shared commitment, as prior emotional history among participants and their perceived expectations play a role. The research also indicated that productive exchange may not be possible without first embedding negotiated exchange inside a reciprocal exchange relationship. Finally, the findings were also considered through the lens of several prominent theories on group interaction as well as human intrinsic needs, yielding several opportunities for theoretical intersection and integration. The thesis concludes the Theory of Social Commitments has merit in a real world case study and argues for more qualitative research to round out and deepen the existing body of knowledge on moving from person-to-person to person-to-group ties and the conditions whereby groups may chart their own course to collective action and impact.

Purpose: To produce a history of public relations (PR) in Northern Ireland from 1960-1998 with specific analysis of public relations practice in a conflict and divided society. Methodology: The study sourced opinion from 27 practitioners in public relations consultancies, charities, corporations, trusts and civil service departments with the use of the researcher's PR archive (PRA) as a supplementary dataset. Those interviewed represent a significant majority of those practising in the 4 decades at "elite" level. Findings: The research value is in its fact-orientated approach - PR names, events, campaigns and dates have provided a foundation of detail that would have been forgotten without the study. The PR practitioners of 1960 to 1998 have now been given a place in PR history, as have a small selection of the thousands of PR campaigns that were implemented during the "Troubles" - the study has produced a new historical model of development over a 40-year period of birth, destruction, adjustment and growth. Significantly, emerging from the research is the fact that Northern Ireland PR history had a unique framework of stimuli. What is different to other accounts of stimuli is the length of the list and its complexity in terms of the stimuli also being issues of challenge. The detailed history contributes to an emerging international portfolio of national PR histories (L'Etang, 2004; Toledano and McKie, 2013; Watson, 2014). This study adds to what Daymon and Holloway (2011, p195) call the "cumulative theory-building" of PR history practice with the analysis of "value" PR, as opposed to the researcher's previous publications on the "power" PR practice of the protagonists (Somerville and Purcell, 2011; Somerville, Purcell and Morrison, 2012). A 3 context model of practice emerges. The "personal" model is an analysis of the "human cost" of the "Troubles" adding to social and professional studies of the period (Cairns, 1980; Bairner, 1996; Hancock, 1998; Bloomfield, 1998; 0' Farrell, 1998; Niens et ai, 2004; Graham and Orr, 2014; McGarr, 2015). This is a study of how PR practitioners, their families and associates dealt with death, death threats, bombs, killings, experiences and management of sectarianism and bigotry. The emerging personal models of practice show the importance of interpersonal relationships and dialogue to survival and exploitation in conflict societies (Pearson, .1989; Grunig, 2001; Taylor, 2000; Taylor and Kent, 2014). Analysis of the organisational model of PR practice shows that from sustained conflict came a very media and strategically savvy generation of practitioners. The data adds value to this cultural experience of "functional" and "critical" PR literature and issues of "challenges", good practice, media relationships, dominant coalitions and truth-telling (Cutlip et ai, 2000; Wilcox et ai, 2003; Moloney, 2006; L'Etang and Pieczka, 2006; Hitchins, 2008). The third model highlights the significance of PR practitioners to civil society - this societal, rather than organisational or political, role, had an impact on the development of the voluntary sector, the promotion of Brand Northern Ireland and achievement of peace in 1998. The research shows that through sustained campaigning, relationship building and dialogue that PR has a modest but significant role to play when the correct "balance zone" is in place (Flynn, 2006). The study reveals an evolution of PR practice that fits well with functional positivism of Grunig and Hunt (1984) and others (Kitchen, 1997; Seital, 2004). However, there needs to be caution in reaching such a generalised conclusion of evolutionary evidence. It is a general conclusion, an overview, a recognition of a maturing industry. The outcome of the typology analysis during the Troubles suggests 5 parallel types, three associated with shades of propaganda, one of publicity and the evolving typology of the Integrated Communication Strategist - the role of the practitioner as an integrated communication strategist with rhetoric, relationships, internal communications and diplomacy was similar to L'Etang's (2004) British historical typologies. As well as the existence of multiple PR typologies, there is also evidence of multiple dialogical typologies that contribute to Taylor and Kent (2014) sliding scale of PR dialogue - 7 types of dialogue practised during the "Troubles" are presented. The emerging PR typologies and dialogue types from the "Troubles" highlight the difficulties in defining public relations - the conclusion from this Northern Ireland study concurs with opinion that PR needs to come to terms with its multi-definitional state (Ihlen and Verhoeven, 2012; Edwards, 2012). The definition of public relations depends on the specific time studied (Lamme and Miller, 2010), the need in society (Baskin and Aronoff, 1997) and the historical and cultural context in which it is practised (Hodges, 2006; Sriramesh and Vercic 2009; Vos, 2011). Limitations: The scope of the research is limited to a public relations history from 1960-98 thus excluding examples of PR activity before and after that period. Furthermore, it focusses on those PR practitioners who were interviewed; the history and analysis is based on their accounts, and as such, it is a study of how those Northern Ireland PR practitioners remembered their history and how they understood and articulated a theory of their own PR practice. Limitations were also the lack of primary data on the public relations industry and the constraints of oral history itself. Originality: The originality is as the first history of PR in Northern Ireland and detailed analysis of PR practice in a deeply divided and conflict democratic society.