This thesis studies the production of public goods by economic agents that are not only motivated by monetary incentives, but also by intrinsic or altruistic concerns. Each of the three chapters has conflict over social goals at their heart. In the first paper the conflict is between two donors, in the second between an NGO and its donors, in the last between a social planner and a bureaucrat. The conflicts have diverse but overlapping origins. It identifies policy solutions adapted to the context. In the first chapter, we conclude that the more motivated bureaucrats are by social gains, the less they should be subject to monitoring and the more discretion they should be given to manage a budget or quota themselves. We show that contracts using discretion can screen between more and less pro-socially motivated bureaucrats. We show that the limits of bureaucratic efficiency highlighted by Prendergast (2003) can be exceeded when the planner can choose to grant bureaucrats discretion. In chapter two, we study mission conflict between donors and recipients and provide an explanation as to why it may take place. We show that the Busan declaration’s recommendation that the aid recipient’s mission should be chosen, regardless of donor preferences, can sometimes lower social welfare, as it can distort donation levels and entry decisions. In the third chapter we identify fixed costs, mission uncontractibilities and income inequality as driving an inefficiently fragmented charitable sector. We demonstrate that, in the absence of granting a donor unilateral control over a mission, either progressive tax incentives for giving or covering the fixed costs of charities through taxation can make the second best achievable.

Background and purpose: Work family literature demonstrates the great vitality and diversity of scholarship in the field and it is an omnipresent factor in the study of contemporary organizations and society. The majority of work family interference studies have been conducted in nations with individualist culture and the resultant prevalent conceptualisations and models mostly reflect such cultural contexts. Unfortunately, little work has been carried out in countries with collectivist culture and the research that has been done has applied the conceptualisations and models developed in individualist cultural contexts without question. This study therefore focused on Sri Lanka, a collectivist cultural nation. Its aims were to identify the prevalent forms of work family conflict (WFC) and to construct a model of WFC relevant to collectivist culture by identifying the main factors that are associated with variation in WFC. Method of investigation: The research was conducted in a higher status occupation, banking, which typically has higher levels of WFC. It was carried out in three stages: first, a small scale exploratory qualitative study amongst a range of bank employees showed that WFC was seen as an issue by all and the significance of time based, strain based and psychological based work family conflict was apparent. Second, on the basis of the exploratory study, a self report questionnaire was developed based on the most commonly used scale of Carlson, Kacmar and Williams but adding a psychological dimension, and piloted with 20 employees in 7 banking organisations. Finally, it was revised and sent to a sample of 843 employees in 12 banks, of which 569 usable questionnaires were returned (response rate 67%). Data analysis included descriptive statistics, factor analysis, confirmatory factor analysis, correlation, stepwise regression, and structural equation modelling. Findings: Results confirmed the existence of time based and strain based both work to family conflict and family to work confliCt in the study sample. However, there was no evidence of behavioural based work family conflict found in the West. The existence of the proposed new dimension of psychological based work family conflict was confirmed and these findings are consistent with the differences between collectivist and individualistic cultures noted in the literature. Therefore, the original Carlson, Kacmar and Williams’ work family conflict model was revised by replacing the behavioural with the new psychological based dimension. It was found that: (1) Work to family conflict was determined by work demand, and that work demand was predicted by working hours, tenure, gender, income, formal work life policies and supervisory status. Work support was shown to act as a moderator between work demand and work to family conflict. Overall, these variables accounted for 85.4 % of variance in work to family conflict. (2) Family to work conflict was determined by family demand, and that family demand was predicted by hours spent on household chores, hours spent on childcare, hours spent on dependents, formal work life policies, informal work life policies, and gender. Family support was shown to act as a moderator between family demand and family to work conflict. Overall these variables accounted for 82.2 % of the variance in family to work conflict. (3) The results further revealed that gender role ideology moderated the relationship between family demand and family to work conflict: the relationship between family demand and family to work conflict was stronger for women who reported a high level of gender role ideology than for those who reported lower level of gender role ideology. Contributions: This study made theoretical, parametric, geographical and methodological contributions to the WFC literature.

Parmi les différentes phases de l’aide au développement depuis sa création au lendemain de la seconde guerre mondiale, la dernière approche promue par la Banque mondiale prend la forme de la lutte contre la pauvreté, proposant de nouveaux concepts, tels que le processus participatif, la gouvernance et l’efficacité de l’aide, impliquant de nouveaux partenariats et une réorganisation des processus de décision. Dans un pays fortement dépendant de l’aide tel que le Burkina Faso, différentes catégories d’acteurs locaux interagissent dans le cadre de la mise en œuvre des stratégies internationales. Nous sommes allés à la rencontre de bailleurs de fonds, membres de l’État, ONG, organisations militantes, universitaires et animateurs afin de mettre en perspective leur discours sur la mise en œuvre de l’aide avec celui de la Banque mondiale à travers l’étude des principaux ensembles conceptuels extraits du discours de la Banque mondiale. L’analyse de leur discours a pour objectif de mettre en perspective leur perception avec le positionnement des catégories d’acteurs au sein du champ organisé autour de relations de pouvoir. Par ce biais, nous démontrons les contraintes imposées par le système de l’aide sur le discours et les actions des acteurs sociaux positionnés à différents niveaux de la hiérarchie du champ du développement. / Among the various phases of the development aid since its creation after the second world war, the last approach promoted by the World bank takes the shape of the struggle against poverty, proposing new concepts, such as the participative process, the governance and the efficiency of aid, involving new partnerships and a reorganization of the decision’s process. In a country strongly depending on the international aide such as Burkina Faso, various categories of local actors interact within the framework of the implementation of the international strategies. We met donators, actors of the state, NGOs (the non-governmental organization), militant, organizations, academics and animators to compare their speech on the implementation of aid with that of the World bank through the study of the main abstract sets extracted from the speech of the international organization. The analysis of their speech has objective to put in perspective their perception with the location of the categories of actors within the social area organized around relations of power. By this way, we demonstrate the constraints imposed by the system of the aid on the speech and the actions of the social actors positioned at various levels of the hierarchy of the field of development.

This thesis explores the consumer culture of the Japanese Bubble Economy (1986-1991). Using the four key magazines of Mono, AXIS, Hanako and Brutus as vehicles, it shows how the culture of 1980s-Bubble Japan was expressed and celebrated through its consumption. Using the critical theories of Baudrillard and Bourdieu, it explores the various consequences of this newly liberated consumption, showing how the effects of the Bubble were not just economic, but also social and cultural. Spanning a period of about 4-5 years, the Bubble Economy was a time of ballooning prosperity in Japan. Following an upward revaluation of the yen and financial liberalisation instigated by the signing of the 1985 Plaza Accord, the late 1980s saw Japan entering a period of market frenzy, as a credit-fuelled boom caused assets to rocket and land speculation become rife. Consumption too boomed, along with a shifting focus from work to lifestyle, and magazines surged as guides to this new glittering life of prosperity and ease. As lifestyle magazines, the four chosen deal with different areas of the market that reflect the changes happening in and because of the Bubble. Mono describes new, faster patterns of consumer behaviour predicated on the increasingly fast and superficial tastes of its readers. AXIS places itself firmly in the international sphere of design culture, and in doing so reflects the subtle nationalist agendas of industry. Hanako, catering to the new consumer market of young women, uses travel and consumption to distract and compensate for inequalities in their working lives, while Brutus demonstrates a secret dissatisfaction of its male readers at their own restrictions of privilege. Using critical theory to interrogate the deeper implications of the Bubble, the thesis shows how rather than symbolising the apex of Japanese development and success of its unique system of working and social relations, it merely disguised the cracks that were beginning to form. Moreover, by encouraging the rampant consumer behaviour that was to characterise the Bubble, the government was inadvertently changing attitudes and expectations that would hasten dissatisfaction with the restrictions of a system that included considerable gender bias and heavily internetworked localised social and corporate relationships. In the final chapter to the thesis, the more strange and unusual aspects of the Bubble are explored, showing how even as it papered over faults and invited dissatisfaction, it also provided opportunities and space for transformation and self-expression. While many aspects of present-day Japanese culture, such as the trend for kawaii (cute), or hyper-energetic characters, are attributed to the 1990s, this thesis shows how these trends relied on the possibilities inherent in the Bubble Economy to flourish, before gaining enough impetus to travel abroad as mature cultures. Finally, in the field of Japanese studies, the Bubble period is notable for its relative absence in its social and cultural aspects. This is not to say that it was an inconsequential period, but rather that the difficulties of the decades after its bursting and the extravagance that marked it have made it both less urgent and culturally problematic as a period of study. However, this has meant that it has been denied rigorous study, in favour of the more pressing urgencies of the Lost Decades. Using critical theories to a depth rarely seen in Japanese studies, this thesis aims to rectify this and provide a deeper insight into the Bubble than has been allowed before.

ABSTRACT This thesis examines the prolonged industrial conflict between the Academic Staff Union of Universities (ASUU) and the Federal Government of Nigeria (FGN). This thesis provides a historical and sociological account of the origins, development, primary causes, and effects of this industrial conflict in Nigerian universities. Data was sourced from both primary and secondary (documentary) sources and analysed using comparative historical analysis, theoretical analysis and secondary analysis. The thesis concludes that the ongoing industrial conflict between ASUU and the FGN can be understood as having the features of a class dispute and that it entails both economic and political factors. Besides domestic factors directly affecting the disputes (e.g. low wages and conditions of service, poor and erratic funding, rising student population and weak institutional autonomy), this study revealed that external factors (particularly the effects of Nigeria’s macroeconomic policies) contributed to the intensity of the disputes. Moreover, it is argued that historical antecedents, especially the colonial legacies of ethnicity, regionalism, weak legitimacy, corruption and autocracy have helped to shape the growth and development of the higher education system in Nigeria, and therefore of these disputes. Regarding the effects of the crisis, findings reveal that the poor emolument of academic staff coupled with the deterioration in teaching and learning facilities have contributed to the ‘brain drain’ from Nigerian universities, that is, the migration of staff, students and other professionals from the country in search of better opportunities abroad. Consequently, this thesis concludes that the factors affecting the industrial disputes between the ASUU and the FGN have been largely propelled by historical, economic and political factors which have become institutionalised and embedded in the Nigerian polity so that the disputes will continue to be difficult to resolve.

This thesis explored agroforestry extension's role in protected areas (PAs) conservation, focusing on extension activities conducted from 2010 to 2011 at Saracá-Taquera National Forest and Rio Trombetas Biological Reserve in the Brazilian Amazon. It relied on a mixed methods approach; data collected during an extended stay in four participating communities was complemented by interviews with PA and extension staffs. I suggest that agroforestry extension has limited potential to contribute to PA conservation at the study site. First, agroforestry was promoted by extensionists as a land use that would recover deforested areas, but their narratives tended to overlook empirical evidence. They plotted agroforestry against a 'crisis' background that reproduced, rather than critically assessed, policy discourses depicting shifting cultivation as an important driver of deforestation. Second, even considering that some do participate in the agroforestry project and could extract livelihood benefits, the expectation that agroforestry can replace activities perceived as threats is unlikely to materialise. I suggest that locals' participation was influenced both by broader factors - e.g., past experiences with PAs and social ties to community gatekeepers - and by factors specifically regarding the project - e.g., local perceptions of agroforestry. I also argue that, considering a best-case scenario in which market constraints are overcome, agroforestry could potentially reduce local inequalities significantly. The engagement of both men and women would be important in the management of competition between agroforestry and other activities in mixed livelihoods. Finally, I suggest that main threats to PAs' biodiversity include turtle hunting and cattle ranching, but also mining - the third would not be addressed by agroforestry. Furthermore, I argue that the first two are unlikely to be reduced by agroforestry as cultural incentives to hunt are strong, and economic motivations would hinder the adoption of agroforestry by hunters and favour the combination (rather than replacement) of ranching with agroforestry.

There is a growing trend for older people in the UK to keep working for longer. The percentage of 50-64 year-olds rose from 62% in 2001 to 69.4% in 2015; and for people over 65, from 5% to 10.5% in the same period (Office for National Statistics (ONS), 2015). There are now over 8.5 million people aged over 50 in paid employment (The Experts in Age and Employment (TAEN), 2012). In the context of this changing workforce demographic, it is important to examine how older people negotiate their age-related identities as older workers and represent their views on retirement. This study takes a Discourse Analytic (DA) approach to examining how older age-identity is negotiated in talk, gathered from seven focus groups conducted in workplaces and twelve semi-structured interviews with older workers and retirees. Discourse Analytic research on identity has often neglected to address age-identity construction. The use of DA methodologies in this investigation has enabled discursive strategies, such as distancing strategy, to be identified during participants’ older age-identity constructions; and Social Identity Theory (SIT) (Tajfel and Turner, 1979; Benwell and Stokoe, 2006), positioning theory (Harré and van Langenhove, 1999; Jones, 2006), and Membership Categorisation Analysis (Sacks, 1995; Housley and Fitzgerald, 2002) have provided frameworks for a discourse analytic approach. Older age-identities were negotiated whilst participants were orienting to being older in the workplace and retirement. Previous qualitative studies [into this topic] have focused on a content analysis of what was said, not how. There is a discursive element to age-identity construction that requires a social constructionist, context dependent approach to how age is negotiated through language. In this study, a DA approach has allowed for a micro-level examination which extends previous research by demonstrating how participants use language to negotiate their age-identities as older workers and retirees by drawing on different aspects of ageing, such as chronological, physical and social dimensions [of age] in a specific social context relating to being older at work. Findings indicate that many participants resisted negative perceptions of decrement and decline that may be associated with ageing and retirement when constructing their age-identities. This was achieved in several ways, for example, by discursively claiming membership of a younger age cohort, resisting the changes that accompany ageing, or by ‘out-grouping’ people who were perceived to display certain archetypal behaviours associated with older people. Findings also demonstrate that older people who were still at work articulated negative views about retirement; however, people who had already retired demonstrated a positive orientation towards this life stage. Keeping busy and active after leaving work was said by both older workers and retirees to play a vital part in defraying the possible decline that accompanies old age and may help to achieve successful retirement and ageing. This study has demonstrated how an ideology of positive ageing has been discursively constructed during older age-identity negotiations.

Despite the popularity and potential value of adventure activity (AA) programmes, support for the potential claims of these therapeutic interventions to change behaviour, improve social relationships and improve self-concept has been mixed. The present study is an ethnographic investigation into the effects of participation in AA with a particular emphasis upon self-concept that seeks to move beyond description into one of explanation concerning the processes by which changes may be elicited. The study sample consists of three intervention programmes for disadvantaged and at-risk populations. The first is a Pathways to Employment project for disadvantaged youth (n = 10); the second, a Youth Offending Team programme for at-risk youth (n = 9); and the third, a JobMatch programme for unemployed adults (n = 33). Findings indicate that the AA programmes made an important and meaningful contribution towards the positive development of self-concept and may also facilitate positive behaviour change among participants. A number of affective and cognitive components emerged strongly from the data that show improvements to self-esteem, mood and self-confidence (self-efficacy). These in turn appear to effect behavioural changes exhibited and reported by participants. Participants describe improvements in attitudes and behaviour expressed as being more ready to overcome anxiety in fearful situations, take on new challenges, act in a more agentic and self-determined manner and be more trusting of others. A number of elements such as the concept of ‘challenge by choice’, the application of constructive dissonance and the personal characteristics of instructors/ staff created an autonomy-supportive environment that facilitated participants to engage internal sources of motivation which appear to play a significant part in the adventure training process. Findings also suggest that the AA represented mastery-oriented situations engendering cogent perceptions of risk and danger allowing displays of competence described as ‘self-esteem moments’ that accounted for elevated levels of self-esteem and self-competence.

Increasing longevity in Western society means that older adults will spend more of their later lives as retirees, or as older workers. In this respect, what it means to live as an older adult represents a shifting landscape, where the health and well-being of older adults are guided by the socio-cultural narrative of decline (being aged passively), and ageing in the era of the Third Age (actively growing old). As such, there is a need for research to examine how older adults can age well as retirees, or as older workers. To date, research in this field has seldom considered the role of the natural environment in this respect, despite a burgeoning body of research that indicates the beneficial impact of natural environments upon health and well-being. The aim of this research, therefore, was to examine the role of natural environments in the lives of older adults during the retirement process, and in the lives of older workers, and the potential implications for ageing well. Pluralistic methods were utilised within a longitudinal design in order to generate narrative data. Specifically, 7 retirees and 3 older workers were interviewed in 3 stages, over a time period of 2 years. Narrative analysis revealed that, initially, pre-retirees’ stories were guided by notions of being aged passively, facilitated by a relational narrative and often illustrated by dys-appearing body-self relationships. In contrast, older workers’ stories were driven by notions of actively growing old, facilitated by an individualistic narrative. In the later stages of data collection, retirees’ stories developed to also be guided by actively growing old, where embodied decline was overshadowed by aspects of being such as spirituality, intellectual stimulation, and mindfulness. Such stories were complemented by a developed sense of self, highlighting the importance of self-awareness in later life. Natural environments played a role by providing a multi-dimensional platform from which to age well. For example, on a physical level, spending time in natural environments often involved being active in a non-prescriptive way coupled with a sense of autonomy, calmness and relief from stress. On an emotional level, pleasurable memories from childhood were re-ignited when in natural environments, which participants found invigorating. On a cognitive level, whilst in natural environments, participants were able to engage in a spiritual and intellectual process of negotiation whereby selves were re-discovered from the past, contemplated in the present, and constructed for the future. Implications of these findings for policy and practice, and the original contribution to knowledge made by this research, are discussed within.

This study focuses on the experiences of older people living in a UK purpose-built retirement community – Denham Garden Village (DGV). The aim was to understand more about everyday life in this particular environmental context including how the environment and organisation of the village related to residents’ everyday experiences. Using a mixed methods approach, the study draws on quantitative survey data from the Longitudinal study of Ageing in a Retirement Community (LARC) and combines this with 20 in-depth qualitative interviews with residents living in DGV. Data analysis combined descriptive statistics for the quantitative data with qualitative themes. The dimensions of work-leisure, solitary-social, and community integration were used as a framework to explore how aspects of the environment and individual circumstances, attitudes and beliefs shape patterns of everyday life. The study found that decisions to move were frequently preceded by changes in personal situations. The social and spatial separation of DGV from the wider community maintained the village as an almost exclusively age-segregated environment. Opportunities for social contact were widespread, but levels of loneliness were no lower than in the general population. The diversity in residents’ situations, resources and experiences contrasted with shared community stories of the village as a community of ‘choice’. In addition, norms and expectations about levels of activity and engagement served, in some cases, to prompt feelings of obligation and guilt among residents. Findings suggest a need for more emphasis on the individuality of residents’ experiences of everyday life – both in terms of representing such diversity in publicity and marketing materials, and in working towards an ethos of respect, tolerance and acceptance within communities like DGV. It is suggested that future research could focus on ways to reduce the age-segregated nature of existing developments like DGV, enabling them to function as integrated parts of the wider community.