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Epidemiological data suggest that populations with higher serum/ tissue levels of carotenoids have a lower risk of coronary heart disease (CHD), possibly due to the antioxidant capacity. Lycopene, a carotenoid mainly found in tomatoes, has been suggested to have the greatest antioxidant capacity of the carotenoids found in fruits and vegetables. Carotenoids are fat-soluble compounds and their absorption from the diet into the body may depend on the amount of dietary fat ingested. For years there has been debate about what energy source should replace the saturated fat in the diet, to give the optimum serum lipid profile to reduce CHD risk. Studies have compared monounsaturated fat rich diets with high carbohydrate, low fat diets and have found that both diets decrease serum cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels. Results for high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol and triglycerides have been inconsistent. However, it is of interest to study the effects of different diets on lipid oxidation, as this may also influence CHD risk. Studies have investigated the effect of different amounts of total fat on the serum levels of carotenoids especially beta-carotene and lutein, but to our knowledge no study has looked at the effect of different amounts of fats on the serum lycopene levels, and whether this could subsequently affect the oxidation of LDL in vitro. XIV Two separate randomised crossover dietary intervention studies were conducted; one in healthy men and the other in healthy women aged 20 to 70 years. The aim was to compare the effects of monounsaturated fat rich (MUFA) diet (38% of energy from fat) and high carbohydrate low fat (HCLF) diet (15% energy from fat) with controlled lycopene content, on serum lycopene levels. Main sources of lycopene in the diets were canned tomatoes and tomato soup for the study in women (lycopene content -15.9 mg/day) and tomato paste and tomato soup for the study in men (lycopene content - 20.2 mg/day). Serum lipids and lipoproteins levels and in vitro oxidation of LDL particles were also measured. Compared to the baseline levels there was a significant increase in the serum trans lycopene and total lycopene levels after MUFA diet for the study in women. Comparing the levels at the end of the two diets no difference was observed. In the study in men serum trans, cis and total lycopene levels increased after the MUFA and HCLF diet periods. There was no significant difference in trans; cis and total lycopene levels at the end of two diets. Thus, high levels of monounsaturated fat in the diet do not appear to increase lycopene absorption and serum levels compared to very low fat diet. There was however a better serum lipid profile after MUFA diet compared to HCLF diet. Lag phase for the in vitro oxidation of LDL particles was also longer on the MUFA diet. The lack of difference in antioxidant levels would indicate that this was due to the different fatty acid component of the diet.

Diet influences the coronary heart disease (CHD) risk factors including lipids and lipoproteins, glucose, insulin, and endothelial function. This research thesis examined the effects of the three different (tomato-olive oil combination and chilli) but widely consumed dietary components, on a range of metabolic and vascular parameters of CHD risk. The aims of this thesis were to investigate the effects of: o a lycopene (tomato)-rich high monounsaturated fat (light olive oil) diet and a lycopene-rich high carbohydrate diet (each diet of 10 days duration) on serum lycopene, lipid profile and serum oxidation in 21 men and women aged between 22 and 70 years with a BMI of 18 - 30kg/m2. o a chilli blend (30g/day) supplemented diet and a bland (chilli free) diet (each diet of four week duration) on a range of metabolic and vascular parameters in 36 men and women aged between 22 and 70 years with a BMI of 18 - 35kg/m2. The measured parameters included serum lipids and lipoproteins, lipid oxidation, glucose, insulin, basal metabolic rate (BMR), heart rate (HR), peripheral and aortic blood pressure, augmentation index (AIx; a measure of arterial stiffness) and subendocardial viability ratio (SEVR; an indicator of myocardial perfusion). o single meals containing chilli blend (30g) with or without the background of a chilli-containing diet on a range of postprandial metabolic and vascular parameters (n = 36). o a chilli blend supplemented diet (of three weeks duration) on endothelial-independent and -dependent vasodilation (assessed after administration of glyceryl trinitrate (GTN) and salbutamol, respectively) compared to the effects of a bland diet (n = 15). o the active ingredient of spices (in different concentrations) including chilli (capsaicin and its analogue dihydrocapsaicin), turmeric (curcumin), piprine (black pepper) and the colour pigment of tomatoes (lycopene) on the in vitro copper-induced oxidation of serum lipids. The dietary intervention studies were conducted using a randomized crossover design on a weight maintenance regime. Two different groups of people volunteered to take part in the tomato-olive oil and the chilli studies. All participants from the four week chilli study also took part in the meal studies. Ten days of a high lycopene monounsaturated fat rich and high lycopene carbohydrate rich diets presented similar increase in serum lycopene concentration and a similar reduction in serum total and LDL cholesterol. The AIx after three weeks of regular chilli consumption was lower on the chilli diet compared to the bland diet, but there was no significant difference in the overall effects of GTN and salbutamol on endothelium-independent and -dependent vasodilation between the two diets. Four weeks of iso-energetic weight maintenance chilli and bland diets produced no significant differences in serum lipids, glucose, insulin, peripheral and central blood pressure, AIx, SEVR or BMR. HR was lower after four weeks of chilli-supplemented diet in men, but not in women. Serum collected after the chilli-supplemented diet exhibited a lower rate of copper-induced oxidation compared to the serum after the bland diet. Women, but not men, also showed a longer lag phase after the chilli-supplemented diet compared to the bland diet. This was probably due to the higher chilli/capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin intake (per kg body weight) in women. In vitro studies with capsaicin, dihydrocapsaicin (and curcumin) also exhibited a concentration effect for the resistance to copper-induced serum lipid oxidation. Results of the meal tests were surprising and exciting. The CAB meal (chilli-containing meal after the bland diet, eaten on day 29 of the bland diet) and the CAC meal (chilli-containing meal after the chilli diet, eaten on day 29 of the chilli diet) showed a lower maximum increase in postprandial serum insulin and overall postprandial serum insulin response compared to the BAB meal (bland meal after the bland diet, eaten on day 22 of the bland diet). The probable reason for this ameliorated insulin profile was a small reduction in insulin secretion and a large increase in the hepatic insulin clearance. The correlation between insulin and SEVR indicated an increase in the myocardial perfusion after the CAC meal compared to the BAB meal. All these results were more pronounced after the CAC meal and in people with BMI greater than 26kg/m2. Contrary to popular belief and some previously published data, we did not observe a significantly higher energy expenditure (EE) after the CAB meal or the CAC meal compared to the BAB meal. In fact, a lower EE was observed in people with increased BMI on the CAC meal compared to the BAB meal. This effect was possibly the consequence of improved postprandial insulin profile and reduced sympathetic nervous system activity after the CAC meal. The results from these investigations may have significance in improving serum lycopene concentrations, lipid profile (tomatoes and olive oil), postprandial insulin response (chilli) and increased resistance of serum to copper induced oxidation (chilli) and hence decreasing the risk of CHD, especially in people with increased BMI for whom the risk of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality is higher than in lean individuals. Together, the results from these studies not only advance our knowledge relating to the relationship between some foods and the CHD risk factors but provide an opportunity to combine olive oil, tomatoes and chillies with other foods and spices (as often used in curries) in an attempt to further investigate foods and cuisines that will minimise the various risk factors for CHD.

Author also know as S M Loveday / Fresh bakery products have a very short shelf life, which limits the extent to which manufacturing can be centralised. Frozen doughs are relatively stable and can be manufactured in large volumes, distributed and baked on-demand at the point of sale or consumption. With appropriate formulation and processing a shelf life of several months can be achieved.Shelf life is limited by a decline in proofing rate after thawing, which is attributed to a) the dough losing its ability to retain gas and b) insufficient gas production, i.e. yeast activity. The loss of shelf life is accelerated by delays between mixing and freezing, which allow yeast cells the chance to ferment carbohydrates.This work examined the reasons for insufficient gas production after thawing frozen dough and the effect of pre-freezing fermentation on shelf life. Literature data on yeast metabolite dynamics in fermenting dough were incomplete. In particular there were few data on the accumulation of ethanol, a major fermentation end product which can be injurious to yeast.Doughs were prepared in a domestic breadmaker using compressed yeast from a local manufacturer and analysed for glucose, fructose, sucrose, maltose and ethanol. Gas production after thawing declined within 48 hours of frozen storage. This was accelerated by 30 or 90 minutes of fermentation at 30;C prior to freezing.Sucrose was rapidly hydrolysed and yeast consumed glucose in preference to fructose. Maltose was not consumed while other sugars remained. Ethanol, accumulated from consumption of glucose and fructose, was produced in approximately equal amounts to CO2, indicating that yeast cells metabolised reductively.Glucose uptake in fermenting dough followed simple hyperbolic kinetics and fructose uptake was competitively inhibited by glucose. Mathematical modelling indicated that diffusion of sugars and ethanol in dough occurred quickly enough to eliminate solute gradients brought about by yeast metabolism.

Author also know as S M Loveday / Fresh bakery products have a very short shelf life, which limits the extent to which manufacturing can be centralised. Frozen doughs are relatively stable and can be manufactured in large volumes, distributed and baked on-demand at the point of sale or consumption. With appropriate formulation and processing a shelf life of several months can be achieved.Shelf life is limited by a decline in proofing rate after thawing, which is attributed to a) the dough losing its ability to retain gas and b) insufficient gas production, i.e. yeast activity. The loss of shelf life is accelerated by delays between mixing and freezing, which allow yeast cells the chance to ferment carbohydrates.This work examined the reasons for insufficient gas production after thawing frozen dough and the effect of pre-freezing fermentation on shelf life. Literature data on yeast metabolite dynamics in fermenting dough were incomplete. In particular there were few data on the accumulation of ethanol, a major fermentation end product which can be injurious to yeast.Doughs were prepared in a domestic breadmaker using compressed yeast from a local manufacturer and analysed for glucose, fructose, sucrose, maltose and ethanol. Gas production after thawing declined within 48 hours of frozen storage. This was accelerated by 30 or 90 minutes of fermentation at 30;C prior to freezing.Sucrose was rapidly hydrolysed and yeast consumed glucose in preference to fructose. Maltose was not consumed while other sugars remained. Ethanol, accumulated from consumption of glucose and fructose, was produced in approximately equal amounts to CO2, indicating that yeast cells metabolised reductively.Glucose uptake in fermenting dough followed simple hyperbolic kinetics and fructose uptake was competitively inhibited by glucose. Mathematical modelling indicated that diffusion of sugars and ethanol in dough occurred quickly enough to eliminate solute gradients brought about by yeast metabolism.

As the population ages it is increasingly important to understand the factors influencing dietary habits of older people. Social, biological and psychological factors influence food intake and affect nutrition risk among older people living in the community. The purpose of this study was to identify food-related behaviours that place older people at nutrition risk and to evaluate older peoples’ perceptions and experiences of various nutrition support options. Fifty-one community living people aged between 80 and 85 years were recruited in North Shore City. Food-related behaviours were explored with the use of three quantitative tools. Practitioner Assessment of Network Type (PANT) was used to evaluate social networks. Elderly Assessment System (EASY-Care) was used to evaluate physical and mental wellbeing. Seniors in the Community: Risk Evaluation for Eating and Nutrition Version II (SCREEN II) assessed nutrition risk. Five people participated in a qualitative interview about nutrition support they had received. A third of the participants (31 percent) were found to be at nutrition risk. Twothirds (67 percent) showed some evidence of disability and needed assistance with everyday tasks. Nearly half (47 percent) of these older people had supportive social networks including close relationships with local family, friends and neighbours. There was an inverse linear relationship between participants’ self-rated health and nutrition risk (p<.001). Those who perceived their health to be fair or poor were more likely to be at nutrition risk. The importance of social contact, a sense of gratitude, ‘getting a meal’, and ‘meeting the need’ were common themes that emerged from interviews with participants who received nutrition support. These findings indicate that nutrition risk may be prevalent among community living older people in New Zealand. Strategies and initiatives are needed to encourage independent living and to help older people with the procurement, preparation, cooking and sharing of enjoyable meals.

As the population ages it is increasingly important to understand the factors influencing dietary habits of older people. Social, biological and psychological factors influence food intake and affect nutrition risk among older people living in the community. The purpose of this study was to identify food-related behaviours that place older people at nutrition risk and to evaluate older peoples’ perceptions and experiences of various nutrition support options. Fifty-one community living people aged between 80 and 85 years were recruited in North Shore City. Food-related behaviours were explored with the use of three quantitative tools. Practitioner Assessment of Network Type (PANT) was used to evaluate social networks. Elderly Assessment System (EASY-Care) was used to evaluate physical and mental wellbeing. Seniors in the Community: Risk Evaluation for Eating and Nutrition Version II (SCREEN II) assessed nutrition risk. Five people participated in a qualitative interview about nutrition support they had received. A third of the participants (31 percent) were found to be at nutrition risk. Twothirds (67 percent) showed some evidence of disability and needed assistance with everyday tasks. Nearly half (47 percent) of these older people had supportive social networks including close relationships with local family, friends and neighbours. There was an inverse linear relationship between participants’ self-rated health and nutrition risk (p<.001). Those who perceived their health to be fair or poor were more likely to be at nutrition risk. The importance of social contact, a sense of gratitude, ‘getting a meal’, and ‘meeting the need’ were common themes that emerged from interviews with participants who received nutrition support. These findings indicate that nutrition risk may be prevalent among community living older people in New Zealand. Strategies and initiatives are needed to encourage independent living and to help older people with the procurement, preparation, cooking and sharing of enjoyable meals.