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Geodemographics is an academic field that engages in identifying socio-spatial patterns through the process of organizing areas, typically referred to as neighbourhoods, into categories or clusters that share similarities across multiple socio-economic attributes (Singleton and Longley, 2009). Geodemographics can thus provide a simplified measure of socio-spatial structure through discrete segmentation of geographic space. In nomothetic terms, the basis of the spatial aggregations is based on societal homophily, the tendency of people to associate themselves with similar people. In this sense, people who live close by are bound to have more in common than a random group of people. While geodemographic analysis can be viewed as an established methodology, the simplistic nature of the theoretical framework along with the lack of a single global optimization function produces a lot of uncertainty regarding the success of national geodemographic classifications, i.e. whether they can actually provide good representations of socio-spatial patterns. A review of the relevant literature has shown that little has been done within geodemographic research in the last 30 years as a response to issues of classification uncertainty and system-wide accuracy (Openshaw et al., 1980; Twigg et al., 2000; Voas and Williamson, 2001; Petersen et al., 2011; Reibel and Regelson, 2011). Evaluation constrains are further enhanced by the lack of classification transparency, that would otherwise enable replication and modification which are necessary in order to advance the field (Longley, 2007; Fisher and Tate, 2015). This Thesis focuses on the issue of system-wide accuracy, specifically whether national classification systems can capture spatial variation of socio-spatial patterns at a regional level. Arguably, classification methods are a function of scale; therefore, patterns that are important locally are not necessarily captured in a data-driven national taxonomy. In particular, methodological issues are raised when aggregations into categorical measures sweep away contextual differences between regions, so that final classifications assume that areas within the same cluster have the same underlying characteristics. With this ecological fallacy standard geodemographic classifications fail to incorporate near-geography effectively, and despite the term, geodemographics could be 'aspatial'. As a response to this problem, regional classifications are developed in order to adequately accommodate local or regional structures that diverge from national patterns. Such an example is the London Output Area Classification (LOAC) (Singleton and Longley, 2015). This Thesis tries to elucidate some of the inner workings of Geodemographics by systematically exploring the accuracy of national classification systems for various geographic scales. The main aim of this research is firstly to compare the classification similarity between national and regional patterns, and secondly introduce a methodological extension to conventional geodemographic analysis that accounts for spatial contexts, thus assuming better correlations between places and social identity. In order to provide a comprehensive approach to the issue, the Thesis initially provides a more in-depth review of the theoretical and methodological framework of geodemographic analysis. It demonstrates the evolution of geodemographics, from precursor studies aiming to measure socio-spatial segregation, to a contemporary exploratory and analytical tool with many applications. It also demonstrates the evolution of tools and techniques used in Geodemographics, since G.I.Science and the computational power currently being offered has made a variety of methods available. The Thesis provides a review of such methods, with an emphasis on clustering techniques that are typically used with such socio-economic, quantitative data. It also practically demonstrates the methodological framework of geodemographics through a bespoke classification regarding the build environment and morphology of British neighbourhoods. Based on these methodological frameworks, the analysis explores the issue of accuracy vis-à-vis scale. A number of administrative and functional zones are used in order to delineate various geographic contexts. Comparisons are then carried out between a national classification, which acts as a baseline model, and a series of regional and local classifications at the UK level. The analysis uses arc cosine similarity to evaluate similarity levels between cluster centres and the Rand Index to evaluate a measure of cluster assignment, similar to spatial correspondence (Openshaw et al., 1980). In order to evaluate hundreds of regional contexts simultaneously, an automated process within the R programming language has been developed. Results indicate considerable divergence from national socio-spatial patterns across the UK on a case by case basis. Exploration results showed that, excluding several large conurbations, middle-sized urban areas perform better, while smaller Local Authorities and rural towns score lower. Outcomes suggest several policy implications regarding the applications of geodemographics; areas that national classification seems to perform worse are the same areas that would benefit the most out of a national geodemographic system, considering they are more likely to lack resources and expertise to carry out classifications at their local level. Furthermore, economically lacking and remote areas are prospective targets of national socio-economic policies, and as such, discrepancies are seriously undermining the usefulness of national classification systems, as spatial identification might actually be misleading in regions where it is needed the most. A second step of the analysis is the methodological extension to the traditional geodemographic methodology that accounts for spatial context within the clustering process. The methodological framework is based on Webber's (1980) response to national classification critics, suggesting that national classifications do not work locally because they operate on different attribute means and standard deviations. Based on this observation, geographic dependencies are built within attribute values by means of regional standardisation, enabling classifications to be more sensitive to local variation of attributes. In particular, the model introduces a geographic factor 'g' that adjusts the level of impact of contextual geography to attribute values, for various levels of regional geography - Regions, Travel-to-Work Areas and Local Authority Districts. Model results for various level of 'g' show that the intensity and nature of cluster transitions between neighbourhoods is highly cluster-dependant, while also suggesting that Regional classifications seem to outperform other contexts in terms of neighbourhood representation and cluster cohesion. This research is not developed as a critique to Geodemographics, but rather tries to systematically evaluate certain aspects of classification methodology. Although results are of tentative nature, a model where attribute values are conjoined spatially can help mitigate scale effects. The limitations of the approach are mainly the selection of the extents of near-geography, i.e. the contextual geography used to standardise values, and the value of the 'g' factor, which are both biased parameters and as such should reflect the theoretical rationale and purpose of the classification creator.

This thesis analyses farmer-state, and farmer-farmer relations in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam, focusing on agricultural transformations in An Giang Province. It does so at three levels: first, at the largest scale, farmer-state relations are explored through the building of common dikes of different heights; second, farmer-farmer relations are examined through farmers' management of flood water within common August dikes; and third, at the smallest scale, the scope for interhousehold diversification in the face of common environmental and economic constraints. Case study fieldwork took place between 2002 and 2007 in four communes using a mixture of inductive and deductive methods. Political ecology at the micro-level provides the overarching conceptual framework, and co-operative water management is analysed using Olson's (1965) and Ostrom's (1990) 'collective action' and 'common pool resources' frameworks. The research aims to contribute to a better understanding of farmer-state relations in the South of Vietnam.Drawing on Kerkvliet's (2005) models of farmer-state relations, an additional model, advocacy relations, existed in the study area, although dialogic and a form of dominantstate relations also existed. Since a period of national food insecurity in the 1980s, related to the failure of state-initiated co-operatives here, farmers retain and exercise leverage against the state by, for example, resisting proposals to raise the height of the dikes. Within common August dikes, farmers act collectively in 'pumping clubs' to manage flood water. August dikes raise production, but reduce the scope for individual decisionmaking. Common high dikes allow farmers to act more individualistically and this accentuates differences in success between households. Paradoxically however, high dikes have also enabled the state to gain control of water management, although it is not clear if this has been done in order to regain political control or to protect the poor and the landless.

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This study seeks to trace the history of several small areas of estuarine marshland from the time when they were first utilised by the several communities living on the margin of the upland, through the centuries of encroachment by the river, to the present day. The evidence from which this can be constructed is varied and to be found in many different places. When assembled, the outlines of the story are fairly clear, but there are many problems concerning detail and the interpretation of particular pieces of evidence. In this region the problem was always one of preservation rather than reclamation, and the success which attended man's efforts depended no less on social and economic conditions than on physical conditions. The black Death, the king's wars, or an incompetent Abbot, could bedevil the work as much as high tides and unusual storms. Although the whole community was involved in the drainage and defence programme, recalcitrant individuals could, by their perversity or carelessness, cause loss and damage to everyone with marshland interests; for this reason the study covers the evolution of drainage authorities and the administration of their powers.Marshland is given its value by its use; if its maintenance cost more than the returns to be obtained from it, there would have been little reason for perseverance in drainage schemes: hence an attempt has been made to evaluate these areas by considering the uses to which they have been put, and where possible, the money values ascribed to them. Both use and value have changed greatly in the last century, and the marshland now presents an aspect far different from that which they displayed for some eight centuries previously.