This thesis examines the possible effects of the NZQA unit standard approach on the pursuit of higher learning. Through a critical examination of the debate concerning this issue, an argument is mounted that the key questions were left unanswered about the implications of unit standards. This is because the NZQA and the academic community failed to clearly define and defend a notion of higher learning, and in turn, why its pursuit should or should not be considered an integral practice and responsibility of universities in New Zealand. The initial focus of this thesis is a critical examination of the debate emanating from NZQA's decision to include unit standards in universities. In working through these issues within this debate, this thesis engages with the broader issue of how we ought to conceptualise the notion of higher learning, the role, ideals and values of a university, and the pedagogical implications of such a position. This discussion critically engages with the work of Ronald Barnett, Paulo Freire and Martin Buber. It develops and defends a notion of higher learning and elucidates why this form of learning is, and ought to be, considered a role and responsibility of contemporary universities. The key aim of this notion of higher learning is the development of a critical stance or critical being which is oriented towards all realms of experience. Thus it is a pedagogy that seeks to challenge students to understand their interrelationships with one another, knowledge and the world, and is underpinned by a critical, dialogical learning environment. It is a learning process that continually challenges students and teachers to confront the becoming, unfinished nature of reality, and perceive and create in the milieu of fragility and potentiality. Given this notion of higher learning, and having established its presence and role within universities in the New Zealand context, the thesis then examines what effects unit standards might have had upon its pursuit. It is argued that the inclusion of unit standards would have restricted key facets of this learning pursuit. / Whole document restricted until 2030, but available by request, use the feedback form to request access.

Whole document restricted, see Access Instructions file below for details of how to access the print copy. / Experiences of infertile parents of firstborn infants who were conceived by in vitro fertilisation (IVF) and donor insemination (DI) were compared with those of parents who had conceived naturally. The subjects were 22 couples in the IVF group, 26 couples in the DI group and 51 couples in the normal conception group. Prior to the birth of the infants, quantitative data was gathered through structured home interviews from both mothers and fathers regarding their expectations of parenting, and on their levels of State and Trait anxiety (Spietberger,1983). Information from infertile couples regarding the medical and psychological history of infertility and obstetric information was gathered from all couples. During the 18 months of study following the birth of the infant, information was obtained from published questionnaires about the stresses experienced during parenting (parenting Stress Index; Abidin, 1986) and the development of the infant (Bayley Scales of Infant Development; Bayley, l969). Parents recorded the difficulties, satisfactions and experiences of parenting through a structured weekly diary, which also recorded the support available. Examples of parent-child interactions in structured play situations were video-taped and analysed using categories defined by Belsky (1980). Information from a second structured home interview from both mothers and fathers regarding their experiences of parenting was obtained when the infants were 18 months old. Women who had conceived by in vitro fertilisation had an increased risk of early delivery and low birth weight infants but there was no evidence of group differences in the levels of stress in pregnancy. The IVF group was significantly different in the ways in which they prepared for parenting as they invested less in the pregnancy and expected to have more difficulties in adjusting to parenthood because of age. There were noticeably more similarities than differences between the groups. In general, parenting stress levels were consistent over time except for the IVF group which reported lower stress from the infant's ability to adapt at 10 months. In contrast, at the same time the IVF group reported higher stress from their marital relationship. The cognitive and psychomotor levels of development of the infants were not significantly different. Gender differences in parenting experience were obtained. The results were discussed in terms of their implications for couples in transition to parenthood after assisted conception and the development of the resulting children.

This study is about an educational experience, which encompasses a range of educational knowledge and skills. It is an experience that is relatively unknown in educational research terms. It is also ct comparatively 'secular' educational experience within a 'religious' institution, the Congregational Christian Church of Samoa (CCCS). The Pastor's School (A'oga a le Faifeau) system teaches children to read and write, employing both Palagi and Fa'a Samoa frameworks. The study is also a positive response to the critical and sometimes negative historical treatment of the church and the Fa'a Samoa, especially in their role in the Samoan child's critical literacy experiences. In the light of the underachievement of Samoan children (especially in literacy-reading and writing), this thesis makes two arguments. They are: i) The Pastors' Schools are an important educational system that have escaped attention but which have profoundly significant educational content and impacts. ii) There is a literacy problem in New Zealand that the A'oga a le Faifeau could address for the reported underachieving Samoan children. The content of the A'oga a le Faifeau syllabus for example, includes the teaching of reading, writing, arithmetic, religious and general knowledge, and the Fa'a Samoa This knowledge forms part of the semantic resources, and literacy skills and expertise, which could prepare children for school because some of those knowledge and skills have spans to school-based literacies. One of the A'oga a le Faifeau's most significant educational impacts is the maintenance and retention of the Samoan language.

Whole document restricted, see Access Instructions file below for details of how to access the print copy. / A sequential narrative format has been adopted as the primary style in this doctoral thesis to describe and define with critical analysis and illustrative case examples the development of Refocussing Theory (RF) and its practice Refocussing Therapy (RFT). The story of Refocussing is told in six chapters, demonstrating a wholistic counselling theory that proposes a way to identify and attend to needs by employing a unique seven foci integrative system. The seven foci system resulted from a desire to find "simplicity on the other side of complexity" (Holmes, cited in De Pree, 1989, p.22) with respect to psychological and theological understanding of human functioning. Consequently, needs were identified as the common convergent construct that transcended the theoretical differences between psychological and theological theories. Accordingly, this thesis proposes that through the implementation of Refocussing Theory (RF), these needs can be identified and attended to, thereby facilitating wholeness. A primary assumption in RF is that people have transpersonal, interpersonal, and intrapersonal dimensions, in which needs manifest. RF proposes that identification of, and, attention to these needs is required. This is so that where needs that are unmet, unfulfilled, or that have become maladjusted, in people's transpersonal (spiritual), interpersonal (social, vocational, recreational) and intrapersonal (intellectual, emotional, moral, physical) functioning, thereby thwarting or hindering their ability to live life in a wholistic manner, these needs can instead be healed, resourced, or resolved. Specific, unique and essential to Refocussing Theory to achieve this is the employment of the "God spaces", which allow people a way to locate, access and develop "God's empowering Presence" (Fee, 1994). The "God spaces" are the central component of the seven foci integrative system mentioned earlier. These "God spaces" are described in chapter three detailing: (1) how they were discovered by the author in psychological and theological research conducted in 1995; and (2) how the "God spaces" were developed into a methodology so that people can be empowered to locate, access, and develop what they uniquely know of God. All of this with the aim of facilitating people to employ their "faith with understanding", so that the state and process of wholeness (described in chapter six) can be achieved. To fully comprehend Refocussing Theory and its practice, Refocussing Therapy, it is important to recognise that it was initially designed for Christians in general and Charismatic Christians in particular. The reason for this is that, for the Charismatic culture, the "Empowering Presence of God" is considered essential for therapy; that is, if it is to reflect or be at all congruent with the beliefs, values, and praxis of the culture. That is not to say that RF and RFT are limited to the Charismatic Christian culture. Rather, it has application for any who agree with the basic assumptions of the theory. Because it is so important to comprehend what these are, they are made explicit throughout this doctoral thesis. Sequentially then, chapter one, the introduction, provides a rationale for the narrative, showing the important details pertaining to the development and definition of RF. Concomitant with this, and also included in chapter one, is the inclusion of the research questions and methodology that gave rise to the formation of this theory and its practice in the first place. In recognition of the fact that no one counselling theory is likely to suit all people, important questions pertaining to this theory also had to be included, such as: Who was the theory for? Why was RF required? Following on from chapter one is the sequential detailing of the story of Refocussing, beginning with chapter two which elucidates how RF arose in relation to cultures, context, and theologies. Chapter three details the discovery of the "God spaces" and how they were essential for the development of the seven foci integrative system, which is outlined in chapter four. Each of the seven foci along with some illustrative case examples is explained in chapter four. Also explained fully in this chapter are those concepts that are fundamental to the theory. This includes the concepts: needs, clean language, orientating questions, focus and refocus. Chapter five presents a case example to illustrate what was previously described in chapters two, three, and four. Finally, chapter six, the denouement explains what wholeness is, and how by implementation of RF, wholeness as both a state and process is achievable.

The effect of attention to oral reading errors has received little specific examination by researchers in applied behaviour analysis. Some data suggest attending to such errors can have inappropriate effects on learning. A conceptual framework was developed to examine the effects of error attention on the acquisition of proficient reading responses. Analyses of reading behaviour employed concepts and data from 'structural' accounts of reading. These concepts provided details of the components of response systems. Acquisition of proficient reading was seen to involve trends towards accurate integrated responding which becomes self controlled. Error attention was conceptualised as having motivational and informational properties which could directly affect acquisition trends. The first experiment (Chapter Three) demonstrated that under appropriate conditions oral reading behaviour was facilitated by error attention. Eleven year old readers in a Learning Disabilities classroom were measured in their usual reading setting. Two readers received extra tutoring with error attention procedures. A further two readers acted as a contrast for the effects of increased opportunities to respond. These readers received extra practice tutoring with minimum levels of praise. A third subject received no extra tutoring during the course of the experiment. Results indicated that both practice and error attention produced substantial increases in accuracy and correct rates. Accuracy levels were higher for error attention subjects suggesting error attention can have important learning outcomes. Additionally, predictions concerning the error attention dimensions of modeling and prompting were tested. Prompts were found to be more effective with the more proficient reader while models were more effective with the less proficient reader. The second experiment (Chapter Four) examined specific predictions about timing of error attention. Six, 6 year old normal readers received daily sessions of either delayed or immediate attention to errors. Every second day the subjects also read a text on which they were not tutored. Results showed that delayed attention increased the percent of errors self corrected for five subjects in both the tutored and non tutored texts. Increases in self corrections were consistently associated with increased accuracy. The data supported both the predictions and the proposed model of self correction behaviour as having a tutorial or self instruction function. Both experiments were discussed in terms of the functions of error attention in facilitating acquisition of proficient reading. Methodological issues in the behaviour analysis of oral reading were also discussed and implications from the studies for instruction in learning to read are drawn. The usefulness of concepts from 'structural' accounts of reading for a predictive 'functional' account of error attention is examined in a concluding section.

'Public Choice Theory' is defined by its proponents as 'the application of economics to politics'. This thesis attempts to describe Public Choice Theory in its component parts and as a coherent and potent contemporary factor in the political and educational scene. The methodologies used are Foucauldian 'genealogy' and 'immanent critique', that is, the theory is examined in its historical context and in terms of its own logic. The process by which this theory has affected the educational situation in New Zealand is examined, and set in the context of the wider application of economics to politics in this country generally. Some of the major policy documents concerning Education are read closely in order to identify the extent of the Public Choice Theory influence on them, Whilst Public Choice Theory is commonly associated with the 'New Right' it is also the key element of 'analytic Marxism'. Whether from 'left' or 'right,' Public Choice Theory, as a basis for the content or organisation of education is presented as a historically contingent theory, making dubious claims to scientific validation, and bringing about consistent changes in the nature of education and the construction of persons engaged in it.

The purpose of this two year cross-sectional and longitudinal study was to examine the reading and language of severely and profoundly deaf children over two years. The focus was on reading and language achievement, measured by standardized tests and the process of reading demonstrated when engaged in reading prose. The children were the entire population of severely and profoundly deaf, aged from 5 to 10 years at the commencement of the study, who had no other educational handicaps. They were being educated within a Total Communication programme at the Kelston School for Deaf and associated unit classrooms. Reading achievement was assessed by the Gates-MacGinitie Reading Assessment Test on three occasions, each one year apart. Reading achievement was also assessed by documenting accuracy and comprehension (retelling) when reading natural language texts. Language achievement was measured using the Grammatical Analysis of Elicited Language (Moog and Geers, 1979, 1980). The relationship between reading and language achievement was established. The reading of natural language stories was analyzed to establish the pattern of errors (miscues) on text at two levels of difficulty for the reader. Categories of semantically appropriate, syntactically appropriate, grammatically similar, the omission of inflectional morphemes, fingerspelt miscues and signing errors were established. Comparisons were made between age groups, proficiency groups(High and Low) and across developmental levels. Cloze passages were also analysed to assess the use of contextual information by these readers. Analyses of Variance (ANOVA) were undertaken for each miscue category in the signed reading, classified by age and proficiency of the reader, and difficulty of the text. Analyses of variance (ANOVA) were undertaken for the miscue categories classified by reading level, and the cloze exercise substitution classified by age and proficiency of the reader. Observations of classroom reading instructions were included to document the environment within which the children were being educated. Six individual case studies, three high progress and three low progress, were also analyzed. The findings suggest that reading achievement of these severely and profoundly deaf readers is still low. This is consistent with previous studies but achievement in comparison with earlier New Zealand data and data from surveys in the U.S. was slightly higher. This study supported previous research that suggested that standardized tests of reading do not adequately measure the reading achievement of deaf readers. High positive correlations (r ≥.90) between reading and language achievement were interpreted to be bi-directional and suggestive that higher rates of engaged time in reading could facilitate greater reading and language development. An integrated/interactive model most appropriately described the process of reading for these deaf readers as for hearing readers. Like hearing readers these deaf readers, at all ages and both high and low progress, were able to utilize contextual cues, and textual cues as they interacted with text. However, several unique differences in the process of reading have important implications for instruction. Low levels of syntactic cues during signed reading, it was suggested, reflect the readers use of their language in use and sensitivity to task factors. Fingerspelling was demonstrated to be a potentially useful strategy that was used at a significantly higher rate by High Progress readers. High Progress readers were more able than Low progress readers to use strategies ensuring fluency in order to construct meaning from texts Observations of classroom reading indicated that the rate of engaged time in reading was not high and that although the teachers espoused a meaning-emphasis some practices in the classroom did not foster independent problem solving readers. The educational implications of the data were discussed.

Phonological awareness is one of the most important metacognitive skills needed for literacy development. However, the relationships between preschool phonological awareness and pre-literacy skills are only just beginning to be examined. An important area is the study of potential precursors to phonological awareness. The current research proposed that phonological awareness develops along a continuum of linguistic awareness beginning with syllables and moving towards the smallest level of the phoneme. In the current research, potential precursors were examined in two studies. The first study was an examination of preschool phonological awareness in a sample of 110 New Zealand four-year-old children with no formal literacy instruction but who had a range of pre-literacy skills including 12 children who could read one or more words. The second study examined how literacy instruction influenced the development of phoneme awareness by independently assessing the role of learning to read and the role of learning to spell by teaching non-readers to read 8 CVC words or to spell the same 8 CVC words, but not to read and spell. The results found that rime and phoneme awareness both contributed to a latent variable of phonological awareness and that they each had different potential precursors. Receptive vocabulary explained the most variance in rime awareness with a small association of letter-name knowledge and own-name spelling while rime awareness developed more in children who learnt new words in the intervention. Rime awareness contributed to phoneme awareness along with letter-sound knowledge. When children were taught to read using blending this led to task specific phoneme awareness gains only. Phoneme awareness did not contribute to word-learning in the experimental conditions, with the only learning occurring in the spelling conditions. Letter-name knowledge had a relationship with the acquisition of orthographic representations. Letter-sound knowledge had a relationship with phoneme and letter-level attempts at unfamiliar words. This suggests that children with good letter-name and letter-sound knowledge have both orthographic knowledge and alphabetic strategies available in early word reading and spelling. Results are discussed in terms of their theoretical and practical implications emphasising the role of alphabet knowledge in early literacy acquisition.

This thesis using oral historiographic techniques examines the changing role and function of a teachers' union during changes in the nature of a national State which can also be related to changing forms of capitalism. The teachers' union is New Zealand Post-Primary Teachers Association (the secondary school teachers' union) and the period of particular focus is between 1983 and the beginning of 1993. This is the period of a crisis in the New Zealand State during which the character of the national State was moved from what has been described as a 'wage earners' Welfare State towards a more residual form providing a 'modest safety net'. The financial and the labour market were deregulated to become more free of direct State involvement. The administration of education was changed and the individual schools' elected Boards of Trustees were made responsible for the provision of schooling. The role of PPTA in the State is moved structurally in this time. As a professional association before the changes, PPTA had both opportunity for input into the mandate of education, as well as the possibility of creating implementation pressure through political action. As a bargaining agent, the input role of PPTA to decisions in education was limited to addressing members' concerns at the school level. The restructuring of education and of the labour market, PPTA was both an object to be acted on and a participant obstructing the changes. This thesis presents what is a PPTA view of those changes. PPTA formed a central part of the education structures which were to be transformed by the economic liberal project. The survival of PPTA demonstrates the extent to which the project was not completed and the resistance of PPTA was one of the reasons why the project in education could not be completed. The thesis is in three parts. Part one is a regulationist-derived periodisation of the historical development of the New Zealand wage earners Welfare State and education. This is followed by a consideration of the economic-liberal challenge to this State Part two considers the development of PPTA's professional project and the possibilities presented through different arenas. Part three focuses on the changing nature of the State labour market policy and PPTA's activity in that. The changing strategies and tactics of PPTA's 'professional project', the thesis argues, occur under changing political conditions and are an example of Offe's concept of rational opportunism

The research studies reported in this thesis extend over a 5-year period of my own growth and development as a researcher and teacher. Two themes run in parallel. The first theme was improvement in skills in implementing objective research to assess behaviour change resulting from childcare and teacher training programmes. The second theme was the clarification and explanation of my own role and behaviour as a trainer of teachers and childcare workers. The theoretical framework used for the objective research was applied behaviour analysis and the one used to explain my behaviour was Argyris and Schon's (1974) theory of action with its two different theories-in-use. Model I is where people strive to satisfy the governing variables of defining goals and trying to achieve them; winning not losing; minimising negative feelings; and being rational. This creates conditions where only single-loop learning is possible. Single-loop learning is where people adopt new actions to realise their governing variables. However double-loop learning, where we learn to change the governing variables themselves, is only possible with a Model II theory-in-use i.e. where people strive to give and get valid information, make free and informed choices and generate internal commitment to the choices. During Study I my own behaviour as a researcher and teacher could be explained in terms of Model I. I adopted a rigorous research model for the research and a traditional authoritarian model for the teaching. However I perceived a mismatch between what I said (Model II) and what I did (Model I), also I did not like the 'behavioural world' my research activities had created. I wanted to be an effective teacher and an effective researcher yet the two seemed incompatible. The rigorous research methods I was using to evaluate my teaching were limiting the quality of learning and teaching. In Study 1 the effects of training 8 childcare students in two childcare centres using Specific Instruction, Graphic Feedback and Daily Verbal Feedback were evaluated for three caregiver behaviours: non-verbal, verbal and participation (in activities, childcare and housework). This first study showed that when the unilaterally controlling methods of rigorous research were combined with authoritarian teaching, conditions were produced which explained only how people would behave under similar circumstances of control and generalisation was limited. In Study 2 the effects of training 8 childcare supervisors to train their staffs in eight childcare centres using a training package which included Negotiated Instruction, Practice and Feedback were evaluated for three caregiver behaviours: talking with children and adults; socio-emotional (positive and negative); and participation (in activities, childcare and housework). During Study 2 I tried to make the transition from Model I to Model II and moved to teaching where I shared control through negotiating the curriculum and research which included social validation measures. However on reflecting on the outcomes of Study 2 I realised that I was still continuing to do Model I research (where I unilaterally controlled and master-minded the research design, goals and procedures) whereas in contrast in my teaching role I had simply adopted a role which was opposite of Model I (i.e. I had handed control over to the participants). However Study 2 showed that when rigorous research was combined with a negotiated curriculum (unilateral control and shared control) more generalisation occurred. Results indicated that childcare supervisors could effect significant changes in their own behaviour after a training package of negotiated instruction, feedback and practice. Further, they could transfer skills learned to their staffs. These changes were only achieved when: (1) A mismatch could be shown between what the supervisors and staff said and what they did and they judged the behaviour to be important and desirable; (2) Feedback on performance was provided to the supervisors by the experimenter and to the staffs by their supervisors; (3) Opportunities for comparisons of performance were provided (either within-subjects or between-subject); and (4) Supervisors could negotiate to learn the specific skills they needed e.g. how to give positive and negative feedback to staff. Following Study 2 I continued to try to match my espoused views with my practice in my teaching and integrate teaching and research within a Model II framework. I felt that teaching and research need not be separate activities if the data generated could be used for clients' learning and skills learned generalised to the 'real' world. I therefore taught an exploratory course involving aspects of self-control by participants and shared control over course goals and methods. Experience in teaching this course suggested that when socially significant goals were targeted and students collected their own baseline data, data were generated which course members could use to understand, and in some cases solve, their own problems. Creating conditions which fostered psychological ownership of goals and methods for changing behaviour (giving clients choices; working on behaviours clients judged important and desirable; creating favourable attitudes towards training; and giving clients responsibility for implementation), appeared to enhance the occurrence of generalisation. The thesis, then, arrives at two fundamental propositions. The first is that the process of conducting rigorous applied research (e.g. research-determined and specified hypotheses, predetermined measures, research design etc.) reinforces the discovery and invention of single-loop solutions only. The second is that research and training programmes that attempt to embody Argyris' (1974) Model II theory-in-use will be more effective for developing conditions where a new set of skills can be produced as well (double-loop learning).