This thesis presents a techno-economic investigation of the generation of electricity from marine macroalgae (seaweed) in the UK (Part 1), and the production of anhydrous ammonia from synthesis gas (syngas) generated from biomass gasification (Part 2). In Part 1, the study covers the costs from macroalgae production to the generation of electricity via a CHP system. Seven scenarios, which varied the scale and production technique, were investigated to determine the most suitable scale of operation for the UK. Anaerobic digestion was established as the most suitable technology for macroalgae conversion to CHP, based on a number of criteria. All performance and cost data have been taken from published literature. None of the scenarios assessed would be economically viable under present conditions, although the use of large-scale electricity generation has more potential than small-scale localised production. Part 2 covers the costs from the delivery of the wood chip feedstock to the production of ammonia. Four cases, which varied the gasification process used and the scale of production, were investigated to determine the most suitable scale of operation for the UK. Two gasification processes were considered, these were O2-enriched air entrained flow gasification and Fast Internal Circulating Fluidised Bed. All performance and cost data have been taken from published literature, unless otherwise stated. Large-scale (1,200 tpd) ammonia production using O2-enriched air entrained flow gasification was determined as the most suitable system, producing the lowest ammonia-selling price, which was competitive to fossil fuels. Large-scale (1,200 tpd) combined natural gas/biomass syngas ammonia production also generated ammonia at a price competitive to fossil fuels.

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The main aim of this dissertation is to estimate fuel demand elasticities for the UK road transport sector. Despite being extensively studied, there is a renewed need for the estimation of fuel demand elasticities so that they might be more reflective of recent trends and changes in consumption patterns. At present, understanding the fuel demand sensitivities is especially important for policy making purposes. A review of the empirical literature on fuel demand revealed three important areas of concern. First, fuel demand estimates tend to vary greatly in magnitude. The effect-size differences observed are probably related to the diversity of study-characteristics and data factors. Second, the reliability of past estimates may be questionable due to shortcomings in the modelling methodology employed. Obtaining reliable estimates does not only require the use of recent data but, beyond that, it is also important for the model to be based on sound methodological and theoretical foundations. Third, studies have often relied on the elasticity of petrol to define road transport fuel demand, assuming the absence of fuel type heterogeneity among road transport fuels. This is severely restrictive, however, since demand sensitivities are likely to vary between the respective fuels. This thesis undertakes a series of empirical analyses aimed at improving the current understanding of fuel demand for the UK road transport sector. Through meta-regression analysis, this research examines the underlying factors that can help explain the between-study variations found in the literature. The research then examines the sensitivity of fuel demand through the use of both time series and panel data econometric models. Special attention has been given to methodological issues and the use of recent econometric techniques to ensure the reliability of the estimates. In addition, this thesis does not assume that demand elasticity is homogenous for each respective transport fuels. To that end, fuel demand elasticities are estimated separately for each fuel type.

The thesis conducts a specific to general investigation on petroleum product subsidies in oil exporting countries. Starting with a specific focus on Nigeria, I examine the benefit incidence and the economic effects of fuel subsidies using the 2009/10 Harmonized Nigeria Living Standard Survey and the 2011 input-output table respectively. I then proceed to conduct a general analysis by empirically estimating the effects of subsidies on fuel consumption, CO2 emission and social welfare for OPEC and member countries. Results from the Benefit Incidence Analysis (BIA) show that the richest household quintile enjoys twice as much the benefit of fuel subsidies as the poorest household quintile on the aggregate. Both the gasoline and kerosene subsidies are found to be more regressive than the per capita expenditure suggesting the inefficiency of fuel subsidy as a mechanism for income redistribution. Using the Input-Output and SAM multiplier approach, I study the effect of reducing gasoline subsidy as implemented in January 2012 on sectorial outputs, household expenditure and government spending under two scenarios. When there is no reinjection from the reduced subsidy spending, the results show that the 49% increase in gasoline price would lead to a 0.01% and 0.18% reduction in GDP and government spending respectively. There is also a fall in labour and capital income by 0.29% and 0.34% respectively while household expenditure increased by 0.33%. When the savings from subsidy reduction is re-injected to the economy, the results show that labour and capital income increased by 0.24% and 0.17% respectively while both GDP and government expenditure increased by 1% and 0.12% respectively. In the general analysis, I apply the Pesaran, (2007) cross-sectionally augmented Im, Pesaran, and Shin Panel unit root test to check for cross sectional dependence, the four panel cointegration tests developed by Westerlund, (2007) to inspect long-run relationship and the Common Correlated Effects (CCE) Mean Group estimation to obtain consumption elasticities for OPEC and member countries. The results confirm that subsidies on fuel prices in these countries are quite large while products are highly price inelastic suggesting that price reforms and fuel taxes can help improve revenue, reduce wasteful consumption and CO2 emission.

The relationship between petroleum conservation and sustainable development is unquestionable. International Framework Agreements for the development of transboundary hydrocarbon resources play a fundamental role in strengthening petroleum conservation principles. So far the development of transboundary hydrocarbon resources has been mainly about drawing squares and triangles, with conservation as a secondary objective. This thesis examines the role of petroleum conservation in six recent framework agreements. The study is built around the application of conservation principles for the development of offshore transboundary hydrocarbon resources. The work attempts to identify, analyse and synthesise the legal content regarding petroleum conservation principles in recent framework agreements, and based upon this suggest how future international instruments should be developed. More than half of known petroleum reservoirs lie either across defined boundaries lines or in contested areas. Their development is becoming necessary to supplement current production which largely comes from mature basins. The need to further incorporate petroleum conservation measures for the benefit of everyone is therefore more apparent than ever. The ancient choice between cooperation and conflict for developing shared resources must now be driven by conservation principles. The consolidation of sustainable development under international law provides a unique opportunity to see transboundary hydrocarbon resources with fresh eyes, with a more cosmopolitan approach in favour of nature and humanity as a whole. Petroleum conservation should not be left out of the broader international discussions on sustainability. Nations wealth is intertwined with shared geology, peoples and nature.

Within the current context of the UK's commitment to reducing carbon dioxide emissions, a clear understanding of the nature of the problems, obstacles and complexities facing the implementation of renewable energy technologies, in particular, in urban areas is urgently required. Technical and economic obstacles are often regarded as the most important problems facing the use of renewable energy technologies. However, with the promise that the most significant technical and economic obstacles will be overcome in the foreseeable future, it is essential to determine whether any other obstacles exist. Given a better insight into what key stakeholders, namely energy suppliers and end users, expect from energy supplies and services, respectively, it is possible to have a clearer understanding of the issues involved with such non-technical and non-economic obstacles. Whilst technical and economic considerations should not disregarded, a systematic approach, which encompasses a means of establishing different stakeholder expectations, provides an analytical tool with which to assess the ability of the existing energy system and renewable energy technologies to satisfy the energy requirements of stakeholders. Using Sheffield as a case study example, the relative potential contribution which renewable energy could make in reducing carbon dioxide emissions is assessed by means of an energy study. This provides a helpful framework for identifying key areas of energy consumption and carbon emissions, ways of reducing energy consumption through energy efficiency measures, and the impact of utilising local renewable energy resources. Substantial opportunities for reducing carbon dioxide emissions throughout Sheffield are established, especially in connection with utilising renewable energy technologies to supply energy efficient buildings. Both renewable energy technologies and energy carriers, which are relevant to Sheffield, are examined systematically. This involves establishing the technical and economic status of passive solar design, active solar systems, photovoltaics, wind power, biomass energy and small-scale hydro technologies, followed by an evaluation of each technology against the relevant stakeholder demand criteria. The key issues facing the utilisation of existing energy carriers of electricity, gas networks and district heating systems, all of which link energy supply to demand, are also examined. The uses of hydrogen as a new energy carrier are explored in more detail to establish the technical and economic status of hydrogen technologies and its performance against the stakeholder demand criteria. The result is a better understanding of the nature of the obstacles facing the implementation of renewable energy technologies in Sheffield. In addition to technical and economic issues, the influence of wider non-technical and non-economic obstacles on the uptake of renewable energy technologies in Sheffield is considered. Solutions to the problems are put forward and their likely ability to promote the implementation of renewable energy technologies in urban areas is briefly assessed. The overall outcome is that the potential exists for Sheffield and other urban areas in the UK to utilise local renewable energy resources provided that effective solutions, such as those proposed here, are instigated to ensure that established stakeholder expectations are met in full.

International Oil Companies (IOCs) and Oil-rich nations (States) pool their resources together in order to explore for and exploit oil in the most effective and efficient manner. The IOCs are entrusted with the exploration and exploitation activities due to their technological expertise and financial capability. However, the uncertainties surrounding the exploration for oil constitute the major sources of risks in upstream operations. Similarly, moral hazard and adverse-selection problems emerge during the exploitation of oil reserves. Hence, States adopt a number of control mechanisms in order to maximise their take from the oil reserves. Thus, establishing Joint Venture Companies (JVCs) is considered to be one of such control mechanisms. The Nigeria Government has ownership (about 57%) in the JVCs operating in the upstream sector. The JVCs operate alongside other upstream oil and gas companies (non-JVCs) that do not have Government ownership. This study adopts an agency theory in order to critically analyse the principal-agent relationship expounded above. Therefore, using a multivariate regression analysis based on a panel dataset of monthly observations (1999 - 2007) this study examine the cost efficiency and gross margin of both the JVCs and non-JVCs with the aim of determining whether or not Government ownership in the JVCs has any significant and systematic effect on their performance. Findings of the study indicate that JVCs are more efficient and more profitable than the non-JVCs, as non-JVCs spend twice as much as the JVCs to produce a barrel of crude oil. Hence, it can be concluded that Government ownership really matters in improving the cost efficiency and gross margin of the upstream oil and gas companies operating in Nigeria. Similarly, due to perennial funding problem bedeviling the operations of JVCs in Nigeria, an alternative funding (AF) arrangement was introduced in 2003; so that the companies will provide funds as loan to cover for the Government share of funding shortfalls. Effect of the AF arrangement on performance of the companies on one hand and the Government Take on the other hand was determined by using Wilcoxon Sign Tests on both the pre-alternative and post-alternative funding performance measures such as capital expenditures, companies’ gross margin, companies’ drilling activities and Government Take. Findings of the study indicate that the alternative funding arrangement improved capital expenditures made by the upstream oil and gas companies as well as their gross margin. However, the findings indicate that such arrangement did not improve drilling activities. Therefore, the implication of these findings is that policy makers need to review such arrangements in such a way that not only the upstream oil and gas companies benefit from such arrangement but also the Government.

research analyses the impact of oil and gas exploration in the UK and Nigeria on the environment and settlements from the sustainability perspective, using a case study of an oil producing community (Uzere) in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. This region is affected by oil and gas exploration activities, in terms of socio-economic, environmental and economic impacts. This state of affairs raises issues of environmental justice among the stakeholders. The research had two case study areas and included a total of 13 focus group, 86 questionnaires and 7 interviews. Analysis of this data showed that the oil and gas exploration activities in Nigeria are different from that in the UK. The empirical evidence equally suggests that the lack of technological advancement, management, legislation and corruption are strongly related to incidence of environmental impact during oil and gas exploration. The research further discusses the need to strive towards a balance between environmental sustainability and economic growth. Highlighting the fact and fiction of sustainable development and sustainability in the Niger delta and Nigerian, how Sustainable environment and growth can only be achieved through the integration of policies that connect the environment, the economy and the society. The novelty or contribution to knowledge of the research, developed a framework based on qualitative and quantitative findings. The resulting framework highlighted or proposed ways the Nigerian government can achieve its sustainable energy obligations based on the findings and the review of relevant literature, as well findings from methodology adopted. The proposed framework can be applied both theoretical and practical, this will not only protect the environment and people from the impacts of oil and gas exploration, but will also protect Nigeria crude oil resource saving lives and livelihoods over the coming years. Furthermore the research analyses a number of strategic initiatives, which can be adopted in Nigeria, taking lesson from the UK to achieve the balance between environmental sustainability and growth through the integration of policies, management, technology that connect the environment, society and economy.

This thesis documents research into the design and analysis of gas distribution networks. Means are presented by which the design and analysis problems can be solved over the range of conditions encountered in gas distribution

In September 2011, the UN General Secretary declared his vision of making modern energy accessible to all by 2030. Unfortunately, less than 50% of the population of Sub-Saharan Africa have access to modern forms of energy. This implies that Africa requires sustained investment in the energy sector. In order to provide investment guide and policy recommendations, this thesis seeks to investigate the determinants of renewable energy, energy efficiency practices and natural gas demand in oil producing African countries. The choice of these types of fuel is dictated by the fact that, renewable energy, energy efficiency and natural gas have been considered the solution to the hydra-headed problems of energy security, energy access and climate change in Africa. The thesis contributes to the energy economics literature in four main ways. First, the thesis applies spatial analysis to the issue of ‗oil curse‘ which has often been associated with oil producing African countries since investments in energy will require finance which can be provided by proceeds from oil resources. Second, the effect of natural resource depletion and energy-related carbon emissions on renewable energy consumption is examined. Third, the natural gas consumption behavior of oil producing African countries is examined. Finally, the Product Generational Dematerialisation (PGD) is applied to the energy efficiency of fossil fuels and electricity consumption in Ghana. The thesis finds among other things that both economic and technical factors affect the demand for natural gas and renewable energy. Further, the results reveal that the consumption of both fossil fuel and renewables have not been efficient. Finally, the thesis confirms the oil curse hypothesis. However, how conducive the investment climate in a particular country has positive bearings on neighbouring countries. Whilst the study seeks to recommend for more investment into energy supply and demand, attention should be given to three factors: availability, the environment and finance. Whereas, renewable energy sources, natural gas and efficiency abound in Africa and are environmentally friendly, finance may be a major hindrance to investments. Therefore, the sixth chapter of this thesis, examines how oil resources are managed so that it can help fund investments in energy. The chapters are therefore linked by the need for oil producing African countries to harness the finances to invest in available and clean sources of energy. The thesis recommends that oil producing Africa should open their economies for international trade, invest in commercial sources of renewable energy, build strong accountability institutions, channel oil revenues into productive sectors and educate the public on energy efficiency not just electricity efficiency.