Coastal wetlands are among the most significant, rich, productive, and sensitive ecosystems on Earth. However trends have shown an alarming deterioration during the last decades, as environmental development pressures are aggressively increasing in these areas. This has led to incremental international co~cern and the leads of this international movement, including RAMSAR convention on wetlands, the Convention on Bio-Diversity, and the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment are strongly recommending the Ecosystem Approach (EA) for planning and management to achieve sustainable development in these areas. However the EA is still in its evolutionary stage. Its basic principles and guidelines have been developed but the need for an integrated framework which translates these into a clear process of planning and management has been called for. In parallel: the Ecosystem Services Assessment (ESA) is increasingly recommended as an essential technique supporting the EA but this too is at early stage of development. From here, the aim of this research has been formed 'to develop the Ecosystem Approach and the Ecosystem Service Assessment for planning and management of coastal wetlands'. The research has integrated different research methods and data collection techniques in a series of research steps taken to reach this aim. They can be distinguished into three main stages, as follows: a) Constructing the EA Framework: This stage starts by discussing the special features and characteristics of coastal wetland ecosystems and the main development issues and global challenges they are facing; in order to extract the required characteristics of the proposed framework. Then, the Ecosystem Approach is critically discussed to highlight areas of strengths and weakness compared to the other environmental planning approaches. Several more developed features of the other approaches which address areas of weaknesses are identified then integrated in the suggested EA framework. Also, here the potential role of GIS and RS as powerful tools for environmental planning and management supporting the proposed framework are discussed; and more guidelines and lessons learned from international experiences related to applications of the EA in coastal wetlands are extracted. Finally, the results of all these elements are integrated into a suggested EA framework for planning and management of coastal wetlands. b) Designing an integrated Ecosystem Service Assessment (ESA) technique: This stage focuses on developing the recommended ESA as technique supporting the suggested framework. Two research steps are taken to reach this; developing a suitable procedure for the ESA technique, and designing suitable indicators for evaluation, and refining these through an online international expert survey to establish the final set of ESA indicators. c) Testing the applicability of the main outcomes of the research: The Egyptian context was selected as a rich representative case study for this stage. Several analyses of empirical data including interviews, focus groups, and archival data have been accomplished in order to get a reliable image of applicability of both the suggested EA framework and its integrated ESA technique. Promising results have been obtained not only regarding the applicability of these outcomes, but also for wider application; moreover the nomination for the RAMSAR scientific research Prize 2012.

This research focuses on applying littoral vulnerability assessment (LVA) into the coastal management process of Barbados, W. I. using a multipurpose rapid assessment technique, making the most of limited data and process knowledge. The conceptual and theoretical components of coastal vulnerability assessment set the context on which the LVA process is built. Three environmental sensitivity indices (ESIs) have been developed to using to a selection of the variables to characterise the coastline. Seventy four coastal locations are described according to the following ESIs: - Wave Exposure Index, Coastal Sensitivity Index, and Beach Aesthetic Index. These respectively represent the coastline being 92% being sheltered 64% having a high to very high sensitivity to oil pollution and 51% being of good to very good aesthetic quality Factor and cluster analyses were used to develop Coastal Vulnerability and Degree of Risk Indices. Twenty three coastal segments were analysed of which 52% were considered to be high to very highly vulnerable to erosion and potential storm wave damage. The south coast's most vulnerable locations are Casuarina, Dover and St Lawrence while west coast locations are Fitts Village, Paynes Bay and Sandy Lane. The highest degrees of risk locations identified were Casuarina, St. Lawrence. Batts Rock. Dover and Carlisle Bay. The research has also interpreted case studies using GIS and available socio economic information to quantify property vulnerability based on potential economic loss value. These results show that 88% of the coast is fully urbanized, with 63% being used in tourism infrastructure and having the greatest land value. The thesis also includes the construction of LVA profile model, which is intended to: 1) contribute to the formulation of future coastal management policies in Barbados and 2) provide an easy to implement monitoring procedure for small islands embarking on coastal management initiatives. The research demonstrates the use of scientifically valid yet inexpensive methods of quantitative shoreline monitoring and assessment, which could be of practical value in the coastal management of Small Island Developing States.

In the wake of the phenomenal growth rate of fresh water use globally, the need to ensure security of supply and maintain optimal competiveness in water business has heralded the increasing awareness to measure and compare water use by means of meaningful metrics, performance indicators and benchmarks. Thus, in view of the historically intensive use of water by UK industry, this research set out to benchmark the sector’s water use; the overarching aim being to deduce performance gaps in water use by industry, identify best-in-class practices associated with industrial water use, and proffer efficient improvement strategies for optimal performance in the sector. To achieve this aim, and in line with the research funder’s anticipated outcome of this study, a benchmarking software called “i-Water Benchmarking Tool” was developed. Although, few tools and methodologies are available for benchmarking performance with respect to water usage, but most of these tools are mainly domestic water use specific, developed by, and are within the ownership of commercial organizations. Hence, the rationale behind the software development is to provide a robust, user-friendly and accessible tool that can be used to benchmark water use across industrial subsectors and establish the basis for improvement in performance. Based on the foregoing, comprehensive data were sourced from UK water undertakings, trade bodies and environmental agencies, and used to conduct statistical data analyses and performance benchmarking. Results of the analyses revealed that in England and Wales, from 2003 – 2013, “Metals” constituted the highest consumptive water user (43% water use in the manufacturing sector alone), even with the sub-sector’s 51.31% decline in water use during this period; followed by “Chemicals” (20.52%) with a 45.86% decrease in water use. The third, “Petrochemicals” (15.15%), with a 54.02% water use reduction; fourth, “Paper and printing” (6.15%), showing a 51.64% decline; then, “Food and Drinks” being the fifth most intensive water user (5.32%) also indicated a 17.73% decrease in water use. For Scotland, from 2008/09 to 2014/15, “Distilled potable alcoholic beverages” took up the largest consumptive water (30.21%), but exhibited a 16.51% water use decline; the second, “Basic pharmaceutical products” (26.61%) had an 18.51% water use decrease; the third, “Paper and paperboard” (19.35%), revealing a 31.90% increase in water use; fourth, “Beer” (4.91%) with an 18.42% water use decline; then the fifth, “Liquid milk and cream” (4.26%) with a 0.42% reduction in water use between 2008/09 and 2014/15 also. Lastly, in Northern Ireland, from 2011-12 to 2013-14, “Food” used the largest water (57.39%) showing a 3.823% decline in water use during this period; “Non Metals” (10%) with 5.32% decrease; “Electronics” (8.77%) with 20.42% reduction; “Chemical” (8.76%) with a 10.12% water use increase; and lastly, “Drink” (6.33%) with an 11.68% decline in water use. To this end, with 80% of the products indicating a decline in water use, it is inferred that industrial water use in the UK is significantly declining. Accordingly, of the 53 benchmarked companies, 3 companies’ water use performance were ranked “Excellent”; 20 companies, “Average”; while the remaining 30 companies’ performance were “Poor”. In sum, it is envisaged that this project will lead to the definition of a methodology that can be applied to produce same outputs for sectors not covered in this initial project.

Water, energy and food (WEF) are among essentials to meet the basic human needs and ensure economic and social development. Globally, the demand for WEF rapidly increases while billions of people are still lacking access to these needs. The main drivers behind increased demand for WEF are population growth, urbanization, economic growth and climate change. It may also be driven by changes in demography, technological developments and diet preferences. To achieve a sustainable supply and effectively manage the demand for WEF, complex interactions between WEF (nexus) need to be understood. Traditionally, WEF have been studied and managed separately with a minimal focus on their interactions. The primary objective of this study is to investigate WEF nexus at different scales. A bottom-up approach has been employed to develop a system-dynamics based model to capture the interactions between WEF at end-use level at a household scale. Additionally, a city scale model has been developed to quantify WEF implications for agricultural, commercial and industrial sectors. The household level model is then integrated with the city scale model to estimate WEF demand and the generated organic waste and wastewater quantities. The integrated model investigates the impact of several variables on WEF: human bahaviour, diet, household income, family size, seasonal variability, population size, GDP, crop type and land-use for agriculture. The integrated model is based on a detailed survey of 407 households conducted to investigate WEF over winter and summer season for the city of Duhok, Iraq. The city is chosen as a case study due to the rapid population growth, considerable urbanization, changes in land-use pattern and shifting climate trends toward longer summer duration. These put an additional pressure on WEF demand in the city. The collected data of WEF and household characteristics (demographic and socio-economic) have been intensively analysed to provide a better understanding for the factors influencing WEF consumption. The surveyed data was used to develop statistical regression models for estimating demand as a function of household characteristics using stepwise-multiple-linear and evolutionary polynomial regression techniques. The integrated WEF model was subjected to sensitivity analysis and uncertainty assessment. A comparison of the model simulation results were made with the historical data. The model results show a good agreement with the historical data. The WEF model is then applied to assess the risk and resilience of WEF systems under the impact of seasonal climate variability (i.e., increase/decrease in the number of summer days). In order to decrease the risk of not meeting per capita demand for WEF and increase the resilience of system for providing per capita demand for WEF, a number of demand management strategies have been investigated in water and energy systems under the impact of seasonal variability. The results show that using recycled greywater for non-potable application in Duhok water system is the most efficient strategy but it increases the energy demand. Additionally, anaerobic digestion of food waste and wastewater sludge for energy recovery can increase the resilience of Duhok energy system. Finally, the impact, of Global Scenario Group (GSG) scenarios (Market Forces, Fortress World, Great Transition and Policy Reform) on the WEF consumption and resulting implications, has been investigated using the WEF model. The results suggest that the Fortress World scenario (an authoritarian response to the threat of breakdown) has the highest impact on WEF consumption. In the Great Transition scenario, WEF consumption would be the lowest. The model results suggest that the food-related water consumption is the highest in the Policy Reform scenario.

Within the UK, coastal community’s risk to flooding has increased. Enclosed in these flood affected communities, people and areas suffer at different levels according to their vulnerability. This thesis describes the development of a new Coastal Flood Vulnerability and Risk methodology in order to understand, assess and map UK Coastal Flood Vulnerability for day and night time, at the most detailed level within the constraints of data protection. It also explores efficient visualisation of these results using three wards from the island city of Portsmouth: Hilsea, Eastney and St. Thomas. This subsequently led to an analysis of Coastal Flood Risk, via the combination of the newly developed, detailed Coastal Flood Vulnerability and Hazard Indexes, within ArcGIS, using accessible Ordnance Survey, 2011 UK National Census, and Environment Agency geoinformatic data. The scale chosen for the analysis was Output Area (neighbourhood), representing the level where principal dimensions of vulnerability are founded. This resulted in a unique framework for measuring coastal flood vulnerability that operates at the level of detail necessary to truly deliver effective solutions and was able to distinguish the different risk levels to areas if a flood occurred at day or night. The detailed assessment provided by the Coastal Flood Vulnerability and Risk methodology developed here, pinpointed previously unidentified neighbourhoods to the northwest of Hilsea that have significant coastal flood risk levels, specifically at night. For Eastney, areas in the far western and eastern end of the ward were the most vulnerable and at-risk, whereas in St Thomas, coastal flood risk levels were primarily low. The extra level of detail provided by the newly developed method, allows better targeting of interventions to improve resilience, reduce vulnerability and enhance recovery as well as assisting decision makers to deliver effective risk-reduction policies.

Empirical evidence from the broader literature suggests that public participation is vital to improving coastal management. This study focuses on the wider context of factors influencing local community participation and more specifically upon the nature and influence of Coastal Action Groups (CAGs) involvement in the shoreline management decision-making processes. CAGs represent a reaction by local communities to local shoreline management policies that they fail to understand or perceive as detrimental especially decisions involving withdrawal or relaxation of defences. Precisely, some strategic coastal defence policies arising from shoreline management initiatives from the late 1990s onward have generated the conditions promoting formation of CAGs. Using a multiple-case study approach, this research examined 12 prominent community based CAGs in England. The research further investigated the modes of CAGs establishment and operations via an extensive postal questionnaire survey and semi-structured interview process. The results provided a comprehensive and critical evaluation of the key opportunities, gaps, barriers and factors affecting local community participation in the shoreline management process in England. It also evaluated the roles of CAGs in these processes. The study revealed that the participation of local community in decision-making processes is still at a ‘rudimentary’ stage. This was found to be due to a number of issues, including insufficient information on shoreline management planning processes and lack of awareness of the management authorities’ decisions. Through analysis of empirical findings, a series of recommendations were made on how to further: 1) promote fairness and transparency in decision-making processes; and 2) improve access to information. The research concludes that, in order to reduce conflict and future rejection of management options, the process of local community participation should not be viewed simply as a ‘tick box’ exercise, but as a process from which mutual understanding can be fostered and compromises is established. This research provides a unique contribution to the on going debate regarding public participation in coastal zone management.

No description available.

Land use change and climate variability are the main drivers of watershed hydrological processes. The main objective of this study was to assess the impact of land use change and climate variability on hydrology of the Mara River Basin in East Africa. Land use maps generated from satellite images were analyzed using the intensity analysis approach to determine the patterns, dynamics and intensity of land use change. Changes in measured streamflow caused separately by land use change and climate variability were separated using the catchment water-energy budget based approach of Budyko framework. The information on past impact of climate variability on streamflow was used to develop a runoff sensitivity equation which was then used to predict the future impact of climate change on streamflow. Finally, the impact of agroforestry on watershed water balance was predicted using SWAT (Soil and Water Assessment Tool) model. Deforestation and expansion of agriculture were found to be dominant and intensive land use changes in the watershed. The deforestation was attributed to illegal encroachment and excision of the forest reserve. The deforested land was mainly converted to small scale agriculture particularly in the headwaters of the watershed. There was intensive conversion of rangeland to largescale mechanized agriculture which accelerated with change of land tenure (privatization). The watershed has a very dynamic land use change as depicted by swap change (simultaneous equal loss and gains of a particular land use/cover) which accounted for more than half of the overall change. This implies that reporting only net change in land use (of MRB) underestimates the total land use change. The results show that streamflow of Nyangores River (a headwater tributary of the Mara River) significantly increased over the last 50 years. Land use change (particularly deforestation) contributed 97.5% of change in streamflow while the rest of the change (2.5%) was caused by climate variability. It was predicted that climate change would cause a moderate 15% increase in streamflow in the next 50 years. SWAT model simulations suggested that implementation of agroforestry in the watershed would reduce surface runoff, mainly due expected improvement of soil infiltration. Baseflow and total water yield would also decrease while evapotranspiration would increase. The changes in baseflow (reduction) and evapotranspiration (increase) were attributed to increased water extraction from the soil and groundwater by trees in agroforestry systems. The impact of agroforestry on water balance (surface runoff, baseflow, water yield and evapotranspiration) was proportional to increase in size of the watershed simulated with agroforestry. Modelling results also suggested that climate variability within the watershed has a profound effect on the change of water balance caused by implementation of agroforestry. It is recommended that authorities should pay more attention to land use change as the main driver of change in watershed hydrology of the basin. More effort should be focused on prevention of further deforestation and agroforestry may be considered as a practical management strategy to reverse/reduce degradation on the deforested parts of the watershed currently under intensive cultivation.

Wider stakeholder participation is an increasingly important feature of sustainable water resources planning and management. Despite regulatory and commercial recognition of the benefits of wider participation, there is considerable variation regarding interpretation and successful practical application of participative planning activities. Research in this field has concentrated on the identification of alternative methods and tools to improve both the quality of engagement and associated outcomes with Social Learning attracting significant attention. Rather less attention has been paid to the homogeneity and consequently the usefulness of the stakeholder group as a social and professional unit. This thesis explores the constituency concerns of four prominent stakeholder groups relevant to water resource management, namely: lay public, regulators, managers and researchers via a social learning model of participative planning. Based on a collaborative learning framework a conceptual model is developed and used to illustrate and analyse the relationships between individual and group concerns, opinions and intervention preferences. A questionnaire based survey was used to identify how constituency concerns vary, allowing the four groups’ expectations and opinions regarding the planning and management of water resource projects to be compared and contrasted. Results show that there is significant variation of attitude and opinion within stakeholder group communities on a large number of issues. A greater than expected level of agreement between stakeholders from different constituencies on some topics was also observed. The results of the research inform contemporary debates about the design and management of stakeholder engagement processes and challenge existing assumptions about the robustness of a ‘stakeholder group’ in terms of having a distinct set of opinions. The conceptual model is then revised to suggest a more appropriate process and content for participatory planning, based on the social learning model used.

Water stress is an issue of increasing concern in developed countries. In particular localised water stress 'hot spots', are a new challenge. This emergence creates a series of difficulties. Firstly, the potential impact of water stress in modern political economies is not fully understood by either natural or social scientists. Secondly, policies targeted to limit water stress may need to be deployed well before it moves from an episodic to an endemic phenomenon. These policies may entail radical changes to the way water is valued and consumed by society. Understanding how existing relationships between water users and water governance bodies are negotiated is crucial to successful policy implementation. As water stress might potentially strain these relationships, the aim of this thesis is twofold. Firstly to determine where opportunities may exist for developing consensual, pro-resource strategies within and between these two stakeholder groups. Secondly, to examine the current strengths and weaknesses within these relationships to isolate what changes may need to be instigated in order to support approaches which manage water stress. Exploring the role that legitimacy plays in these current relationships will underpin this analysis. Legitimacy can be understood as the concept that explains how authority operates in modern political economies. In other words, legitimacy enables people, processes and policies to function; transaction costs are subsequently lower in polities where legitimacy is well embedded. Reflexively moving between theory and empirical fieldwork, a detailed analysis of one river catchment, the River Nene, and the water users and governance bodies within it, is undertaken. Primary conclusions suggest that water stress as a concept has a very low profile; however, different symptoms of water stress are recognised along the catchment with a wide range of possible solutions offered by stakeholders. Legitimacy is embedded within governance bodies along the catchment, though it is not uniformly distributed; this colours the perception of their effectiveness in water resource management. Novel policy options to ameliorate water stress are acceptable to water users, though reuse technologies and steep price hikes are rejected.