This dissertation explores how social power relations affect poor, vulnerable people’s access to clean and sustainable water in El Salvador. It does so using an in-depth case study of people living in seven socially deprived rural communities of San José Villanueva, province of La Libertad, southern El Salvador. Drawing on several strands of social and political theory, the research conceptualises ‘power’ along three axes: on local/global, material/ideational and structure/agency lines. Using El Salvador’s neoliberal transition as its sociohistorical backdrop, the research explores the power dynamics shown by water actor groups in positions of hegemony, counter-hegemony and social exclusion. The study shows how these water actors use strategies, tactics and actions along the three power axes. The thesis assembles empirical evidence from academic research; policy documents, media outlets and civil society sources; interviews with policy makers; and poor people’s narratives. The research argues that the current state of unequal power relations in water governance constitutes the main factor shaping poor people’s water access outcomes today. Five key knowledge contributions emerge from this enquiry. First, the thesis handles the concept of ‘power’ as a tool to enrich the traditionally depoliticised approaches regarding water access today in El Salvador. Second, the research builds an innovative conceptual synthesis on power, an ‘axes of power approach’. Third, the thesis provides new empirical evidence using an in-depth case study. Fourth, the study fills an existing gap in country-specific water politics knowledge. Finally, the research offers relevant knowledge in a key water governance period for El Salvador as policy-makers negotiate the country’s first General Water Law in its history.

A multitude of transitional water supply and distribution interventions are continually piloted in Kenya’s fast-growing urban settlements to meet national and global MDG targets, yet visible problems persist regardless of the investments made. This research evaluates the performance of four interventions led by public utilities and non- governmental organisations in the low-income settlements of Nairobi, Kisumu and Nakuru counties. To understand the service improvement received by the residents, this study used qualitative data from interviews and focus group discussions and quantitative data from 1,168 household surveys. Service level analysis results showed making water more affordable using pre-paid technology reduced the effective price by 75% and increased consumption per household by 20 litres per day, resulting in the highest service progress. Improving water accessibility for the very poor via hosepipe door-step delivery reduced the burden on women carrying water by 43% although efforts failed to reduce the pricing structure, limiting the progress. Subsidised ‘first-time’ metered plot connections to increase the utility customer base experienced shortages in water supply and reluctance from landlords, restricting development. Despite showing no positive change, 81% of residents continued to rely on expensive self-supplied boreholes which were all contaminated. Although the utilities have made positive strides in service improvement, in the context of universal service this study has shown that the very poor remain the most difficult to access, forming the target of discrete interventions that experience difficulties in influencing a reliable supply, sustained price reduction and/or good water quality – essentially what is needed most. In investigating the longer term supply and demand shortfall, this study concludes that the equitable supply and innovative distribution of point source groundwater, with a bias for the poorest, could be the most resilient transitional solution for the utility to promote in the foreseeable future, out of necessity rather than desire.

'Water stress' is a term used when the pressures of urbanisation and the uncertainty of climate change on hydrological limits and capacities can no longer be overcome by traditional supply-oriented engineering responses because of their economic and environmental costs. It can be argued that the key alternative water policy responses are occurring with the changing role of development and Catchment Management Planning (CMPg) to a more 'catchment consciousness' water management model. In England and Wales the emergence of 'water stress' in the 1990s has coincided with the national launch of CMPg and renewed interest in development and water issues. Thus the research question sought to investigate how the National Rivers Authority (NRA) as a statutory environmental agency sought to improve and integrate river management by extending its influence to development planning through Catchment Management Planning (CMP) between 1991 and 1996. The particular areas of outcome focused on were water quality improvement, water resource management and flood protection, major NRA functions. The research findings demonstrated that there were different types of development response linked to water issues, scale of implementation and potential contribution to city form. The most important factor in the type of response was the water issue, with the flooding relationship being most advanced and water resources the least. The CMPg process assisted by supporting the promotion of water policies in DPs and creating a new context (involving stakeholder involvement and consensus building) in which to implement these policies. CMPg was found to be having the greatest impact in areas where no previous consensus over particular water issues had existed, and thus had begun to act as a new arena for debate on the problems and solutions required.

Most irrigation schemes in India are performing poorly as seen from the average irrigation efficiency in the range of 30-40% for these projects. Hence it is necessary to study the performance assessment of these schemes to investigate the reasons and improve the performance subsequently. There are different kinds of performance measures that may vary spatially over the irrigation scheme. Hence it is necessary to use a framework for finding out the final performance index (FPI) that combines important performance measures. Hence this study was undertaken. Mula Irrigation Scheme in Ahmednagar District of Maharashtra State, India was identified after verifying that most of the needed data was available. The six performance indicators viz. Productivity, Equity, Adequacy Reliability, Flexibility and Sustainability were identified as the important one for obtaining the information on the relative preference from the farmers and first three were considered for obtaining the allocation plans. The performance of different irrigation schemes is assessed with the help of Area and Water Allocation Model (AWAM). The performance measures viz. productivity, equity, adequacy and excess were obtained by formulating the irrigation strategies based on 1. Irrigation amount: Full depth irrigation (FDI), Fixed depth irrigation (FxDI) and Variable depth irrigation (VDI), 2. Irrigation frequency (14 days, 21 days, 28 days and 35 days), 3. Water distribution: Free water distribution (FWD), Equitable distribution of seasonal water (EDSW) and Equitable distribution of intra-seasonal water (EDIW) and 4. Cropping distribution (Free cropping distribution and Fixed cropping distribution). The yield response of crops to different criteria such as soil, irrigation interval, irrigation strategy and irrigation depth, were analysed. It is found for wheat grown on all considered soils, the variable irrigation depth strategy provided better performance of irrigation scheme in terms of productivity and results in higher irrigation water use efficiency. It is concluded though that the application of water according to the variable irrigation depth strategy is operationally and from a management point of view not convenient and in current situation may not be adoptable. Though the fixed depth irrigation strategy is found to be less productive based on this research for Mula irrigation scheme, it is more convenient for operation compared to other strategies as it does not involve adoption of separate schedules for different crops. In general the area and net benefit productivity values are higher in fixed depth irrigation followed by variable depth and then full depth. The productivity values are higher in case of free cropping distribution compared to fixed cropping distribution. The equitable water distribution resulted in lower productivity compared to free water distribution. No specific trend of equity with the irrigation interval was found. Equity values are higher in case of fixed depth of irrigation compared to full depth. The equity values are higher in case of fixed cropping distribution compared to free cropping. The equity values are as expected higher or unity for equitable water distribution compared to free water distribution. The adequacy values are higher in full depth of irrigation followed by variable depth irrigation and fixed depth irrigation. It is observed that the productivity and equity are almost inversely proportional to each other. Hence the hypothesis that productivity and equity conflicts with each other holds true. Further, Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) was used to assign weights of different performance measures by determining the farmers relative preference of different performance measures. The average weights of different performance measures (monetary productivity, equity in water distribution and adequacy) were obtained for farmers from different reaches from the weights obtained from AHP analysis, and considerable differences were found between the weights for the head, middle and tail reaches. The values of the performance indicators were obtained from the simulation-optimization modeling (AWAM model). The different indicators were combined into a final overall performance indicator (FPI) of irrigation management in an irrigation scheme from the farmers perspective. The FPI was computed for head, middle and tail reach farmers using the weights obtained from AHP by compromise programming. It is interesting to note that the strategies that best met the farmers preferences (highest FPI), were same for middle reach and tail reach farmers however it is different for head reach. It is also interesting to note that the preferences of the head, middle and tail reach farmers, irrespective of their relative location in irrigation scheme, were best met by strategies which include the equitable distribution of water. For middle and tail reach farmers, full depth irrigation would give the highest FPI, while for head reach farmers optimised fixed depth would be best. It is also seen that for head and middle reach farmers a strategy with fixed cropping distribution and free water distribution would be worst for meeting the preferences of head and middle reach farmers while for tail reach farmers a strategy with free water and free cropping distribution would be worst. The mean values of the weights for head, middle and tail reach farmers were Productivity = 0.33, Equity = 0.31 and Adequacy = 0.36. With these weights, the highest FPI (0.85) was obtained with an irrigation strategy of Full depth irrigation with free cropping and annual equity at irrigation interval of 35 days in winter and 28 days in summer . Considering the different depth of irrigations (FxDI, VDI and FDI) the VDI and FDI are practically difficult to execute due to the data required for calculations and operational requirements of the irrigation canals. Using FxDI, a strategy with high FPI (0.83) was identified as the best feasible irrigation strategy to implement for the entire irrigation scheme: Fixed depth irrigation with free cropping and annual equity at irrigation interval of 35 days in winter and 28 days in summer . It was found that this best feasible irrigation strategy for the entire scheme was not sensitive to the weights assigned to the performance measures.

Contemporary efforts to conserve and restore the marine environment are centred on regulating anthropogenic activities in defined ocean areas through marine protected areas (MPAs). This spatially explicit approach is contingent upon a good understanding of the biology and distribution of species. However, our understanding of many rare and threatened benthic species, for which conservation MPAs are currently being designated, is poor. The fan mussel, Atrina fragilis (Pennant 1777), a rare and vulnerable sessile benthic species that shows a reduced distribution compared to historical accounts, was used as a case species. Identifying the larvae of sessile benthic species is an essential first step in informing their conservation. Here, the first description of larva belonging to A. fragilis is presented along with key life-history traits. A point process modelling framework appropriate for the analysis of presence-only data, along with techniques to address both observer bias and uncertainties with historical occurrence records, were employed to successfully predict the distribution of A. fragilis, revealing potentially important drivers in its current distribution. The transport of A. fragilis larva, taking into account key aspects of life-history, habitat suitability and fine scale hydrodynamics, was modelled to investigate potential levels of connectivity within the Scottish sea area, allowing the potential supply of larvae to areas of suitable habitat and the Scottish MPA network to be evaluated. To date there has been no consideration of the likely effectiveness of measures in most inshore MPAs. Here we assessed the siting of MPAs in relation to fishing intensity and seabed ruggedness on the west coast of Scotland. The results suggest little reduction in fishing pressure is effected by current restrictions on activity in the subset of MPAs investigated, with protection principally being applied to rugged areas that may already act as natural refugia for vulnerable benthic species such as A. fragilis.

Economies of scale in infrastructure are a recognised factor in urban agglomeration. Less recognised is the effect of distribution or access costs. Infrastructure can be classified as: (a) Area-type (e.g. utilities); or (b) Point-type (e.g. hospitals). The former involves distribution costs, the latter access costs. Taking water supply as an example of Area-type infrastructure, the interaction between production costs and distribution costs at settlement level is investigated using data from England & Wales and the USA. Plant level economies of scale in water production are confirmed, and quantified. Water distribution costs are analysed using a new measure of water distribution output (which combines volume and distance), and modelling distribution areas as monocentric settlements. Unit distribution costs are shown to be characterised by scale economies with respect to volume but diseconomies with respect to average distance to properties. It follows that higher settlement densities reduce unit distribution costs, while lower densities raise them. The interaction with production costs then means that (a) higher urban density (“Densification”) is characterised by economies of scale in both production and distribution; (b) more spread out settlement (“Dispersion”) leads to diseconomies in distribution; (c) “Suburbanisation” (expansion into lower density peripheral areas) lies in between, with roughly constant returns to scale, taking production and distribution together; and (d) “Constant density” expansion leads to small economies of scale. Keeping (per capita) water supply costs low thus appears to depend as much on density as size. Tentative generalisation suggests similar effects with other Area-type infrastructure (sewerage, electricity supply, telecommunications); and with Point-type infrastructure (such as hospitals), viewing access costs as distribution costs in reverse. It follows that the presumption in urban economics that such services are always characterised by economies of scale and therefore conducive to agglomeration may not be correct.

No description available.

Water is a basic human need (Millennium Development Goal-Target 10) and a central element in all civilisations, yet microbial contamination of surface waters used for drinking, contact recreation, and shellfishery provides an effective vehicle for the spread of microbial waterborne diseases and outbreaks that can cause illness or death in humans. Microbial pathogens remain the most direct, real and pervasive risk to human health, especially in Less Economically Developed Countries. However, water quality managers are restricted in providing effective monitoring and management designs and strategies by the inability to identify routinely the source of microbial contamination. Microbial water quality of many surface waters is likely to deteriorate further as a result of climate change. This research used the River Ouse catchment (SE England) as a test-bed to investigate the application of simple and low-cost monitoring and approaches that can be applied in other river catchments, to monitor and manage microbial water quality during various meteorological conditions and seasons. This novel approach is the first time such methods have been combined in order to study a river catchment. As such, it represents a significant advancement in our understanding of complex environmental processes and ability to manage and mitigate adverse environmental impacts. Sixteen parameters were measured and analysed from 365 water samples collected approximately every fourteen days from fourteen discrete sampling sites. The chemophysical parameters were measured using recommended instruments and procedures whilst faecal indicator organisms (FlO) were enumerated using International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) methods and procedures. In addition to ISO methods, the study trialled a newly developed low-cost phage-based method capable of identifying human faecal contamination in surface waters. The results showed that all sampling sites were microbially contaminated, and suggested that the main source. was non-human. Thermotolerant coliforms (TTC) and presumptive intestinal enteroCOCCI (ENT) levels tended to be 1.1-1.2 logs higher during rainstorm events. Spatio-temporal variations in microbial parameters were accounted for by three principal components (67.6%). Bacterial indicator decreased downstream while chemophysical parameters increased downstream. Models generated for TTC and ENT accounted for 63% and 65% variability in TTC and ENT levels respectively. Cluster Analysis of the fourteen sampling sites revealed six 'sentinel' sampling sites and this process is proposed as a means of rationalising river catchment monitoring. The correlation between TTC and phages of Bacteroides (GB-124) was very small (r=0.05) whilst those between turbidity, suspended solids, and bacterial indicators were significantly positively strong. Hence, turbidity could serve as a low-cost screening tool for microbial pollution. A capricious climate, animal and human interferences were likely faecal pollution sources. The findings offer low-cost screening approaches for river catchment management through the identification of 'when and where' pollution levels are most likely to represent a potential risk to public health under various meteorological conditions, and help those responsible for water quality monitoring to better target resources in future. These demonstrably effective approaches will contribute to future European collaborative work to improve waterborne FlO and pathogen prediction ('hotspots' of elevated waterborne disease risk during changing climate patterns), and future EU and WHO initiatives (such as Water Safety Plans) to improve environmental disease protection for all.

The achievement of a sustainable future for Scotland's coastal communities is subject to, and dependent upon, a complex policy landscape of stakeholders and policy documents within which resource and information is transferred where relationships and dependencies, are linked to the power and influence of policy actors and documents. Understanding the dynamics of the policy network is critical for effective stakeholder engagement. This study investigated four policy themes and explored their impact and relevance on government and civil society efforts for Scottish coastal community sustainability. This was informed by a review of the marine and coastal estate, policy and planning in addition to sustainable economics, behaviour, innovation and governance. The four policy themes of low carbon economy, marine renewable energy, zero waste and sustainability were subject to a literature reviews and to policy network analysis using a new method developed here called Rapid Policy Network Analysis. This method provides a broadly applicable, relatively simple, replicable mechanism, with cost to its application for non-policy specialists to understand those issues which are most pertinent to their objectives. The research considered established theories and models for achieving sustainable equilibrium in complex systems including common pool resources and recent initiatives in developing sustainable communities. A working hypothesis for a future policy framework supporting sustainable development in the Scottish coastal region was proposed and tested using the results of the policy network analysis and literature review based on specific questions. Across all policy themes the Climate Change (Scotland) Act 2009, the Electricity Act 1989, the Environmental Protection Act 1990, the Second National Planning Framework (NPF2), the UK and Scottish Governments and Scottish Local Authorities were amongst the most important and influential. The study shows that there continues to be a gap between the national development of sustainability policy and the authority required at the coastal scale.

The English and Welsh water and sewerage industry was privatised in 1989 and is characterised by a series of regional monopolies. The majority of consumers currently have no choice in their supplier. The industry is regulated by Ofwat to guarantee the best value for customers whilst enabling the companies to undertake their activities. The motivation of this thesis is to examine the effectiveness of regulation. The aim is to examine five research questions. Firstly, has regulation encouraged convergence amongst the efficiency scores? Secondly, have the 1999 and 2004 price reviews been effective in improving efficiency? Thirdly, is there a capex bias in the industry? The final two aims come from a methodological perspective: firstly, to allow for the incorporation of environmental variables within the measurement of efficiency and secondly, to incorporate the long asset life of capital by incorporating capital as an intertemporal factor of production. Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) is employed to measure efficiency which is a non-parametric technique that creates a linear frontier over the data. Convergence is examined by drawing from the growth literature to examine -and -convergence. A three-stage DEA model is applied to examine the influence of environmental variables and to obtain an environmental adjusted DEA efficiencey score. Finally, the intertemporal nature of capitala is incorporated through a dynamic DEA model. This thesis reports that whilst regulation has produced limited improvements in the average efficiency, regulation has been effective in encouraging the least efficient firms to catch up with the frontier companies. Ofwat's tightening of the price review in 1999 has produced significant improvements in efficiency, whereas the 2004 price review was relatively lax and had no significant influence. Finally, the thesis highlights that the current regulatory framework induces a preference towards capital expenditure which can have implications on the consumer's bill.