Margin behaviour was studied as part of vertical price formation for meat and livestock. A theoretical analysis was given starting from a critical survey of literature. The short-term margin problem is based on levelling and theory on the subject is incomplete. Levelling is the result when pricing policies cause discord between vertically related prices. For empirical analysis of the data, attention was paid to market processes. Vertical formation of prices was studied by analysis of competitive organization, market adjustment behaviour and by determining relationships between prices in the hierarchy of markets. By spectral methods, the livestock markets in the Netherlands proved to be the primary markets for short-term price formation of beef, whereas for pork the wholesaling and processing industry played this role. In the market systems for both products in West Germany, however, the livestock markets act as primary. Levelling can be seen either adaptive or predictive. Levelling policies were usually found to be adaptive and to apply in a seasonal interval. However, between wholesale prices for pork and (farm) prices for pigs in the Netherlands, a predictive levelling relationship was discovered. Levelling policies by the distributive trades was different for upward and downward changes in locus (primary) price, because of hysteresis in market responses. The retailers attempted to achieve uniform use of capacity by adjusting pork prices more frequently than beef prices and by active averaging across margins on 'pork wholesale cuts' in the Netherlands. In West Germany, no relationship between the beef and pork markets could be determined, although seasonal patterns in production caused compensation for the retailers. Demand functions showed seasonal differences. But simulation of the effects of levelling on this basis showed that levelling has probably only minor effects on prices, consumption, gross income for retailers and farm prices.

This Thesis investigates the planning environment of rubber estates in West Malaysis, their input-output relationships, and through the application of planning techniques and criteria attempts to determine optimum replacement and crop diversification policies. The rubber planting industry, which comprises a multiplicity of estates and smallholdings that differ from one another in many aspects, has played an important role in the West Malaysian economy, She planning environment on estates was funnel to contain factors that greestly facilitate and simplify the task of estate management. The risk and uncertainty associated with product prices, yields, input coats and input-output relationships in long-term rubber production emphasise the need end importance of both long-term and short-term planning. Estimation of estate production functions, fertilizer response, commercial-experimental yield relationships and yield profiles for rubber undertaken to determine optimum input levels end provide other relationships and coefficients for use in short-term planning. Data deficiency and otter difficulties affected this quality of the results, and consequently limited their applicability to estate planning. Two common long-term planning situations the determination of an optimum replacement age for a given stand of rubber trees and planning for crop diversification on the basically monooultural estates, were analysed. In the former a deterministic replacement model we applied to different varieties of rubber trees depicting a representative crosssection of productive capacity on estates and smallholdings. With respect to crop diversifiostion the profitability of rubber, oil palm and cocoa on the major rubber growing soils in West Malasia was compared. Interoropping as a form of crop diversification on estates was assessed to be economically viable.

Existing systems of land classification in Britain were outlined, and the need for more emphasis on the particular problems of hill areas was established. Previous studies in the Department of Soil Science at Aberdeen have considered many aspects of land capability classification for both forestry and grass production, but, since the majority have dealt with the former use, it was decided to concentrate on grass production in this case. Features of hill land in Britain, and their limiting effects upon the types of farming system sustainable, were described, Ways of increasing hill sheep productivity were reviewed, and the importance of improved grassland at periods of acute nutritional imbalance was stressed, Environmental and management factors affecting grass productivity in hill areas were then reviewed. The applicability of previous workers' findings to the soils of the north-east Highlands as a whole was appraised, and it was considered desirable to obtain information about upland grass productivity over a wider area, particularly in relation to soils recently reclaimed from moorland. Sites were established on good quality grass swards in areas representative of three of the most extensive soil associations in northeast Scotland, according to experimental designs incorporating factors of soil association, altitude, major soil group and NPK fertilizer treatment. Most emphasis was put upon environmental factors in the first season's field design, whilst more attention was subsequently paid to fertilizer treatments. aSoils analysis revealed few differences, in chemical properties between soil associations for members of the same major soil group, but large differences between soils of different major groups, There were, in particular, much higher subsoil reserves of phosphorus and calcium in brown earths than in podzols, though in the surface horizons such differences had been obscured by recent fertilizer treatment, Vegetation analysis during the first season confirmed that most sites were of comparable botanical composition, but prompted the deletion of certain atypical swards from subsequent field designs, The climatic conditions of the experimental seasons were characterised in relation to temperature and rainfall, and were considered to be somewhat atypical of the long-term means in both respects. In view of this the second year's field experiment is being continued for a further season, and it is hoped that the results may serve to test the validity of the present findings in relation to a less favourable season, The results of both years' field experiments showed that, despite the shortness of the growing season, considerable yields of herbage dry matter could be obtained on both soil groups in all areas, together with responses to nitrogen fertilizer that approached those which might be expected under lowland conditions. Nevertheless brown earths were found to consistently outyield podzols, with appreciable amounts of nitrogen fertilizer being required to make up the difference. The overall yield response to nitrogen was linear for both soil groups up to a level of 175 kg/Ha.N. Dry matter responses to phosphorus and potassium fertilizer were either small or absent, though this may have been due in part to the influence of residual fertilizer effects, particularly on the recently reclaimed sites. Recoveries of all fertilizer materials were variable, but within the ranges quoted as typical for lowland areas, Consideration was given to the amounts of phosphorus and potassium fertilizer required to maintain reserves under various management regimes, even in the absence of specific DM responses to their use. The soils' inherent potassium supplying power, in particular, was investigated. Various multivariate techniques were used to investigate the nature of the variables controlling grass productivity within and between major soil groups, including correlation, factor analysis and multiple regression of both individual variables and factor scores derived from factor analysis of soil and site data. A land capability classification was proposed>making use of the productivity information obtained, together with observations about the physical and environmental factors affecting the utilisation of such production. A scheme of capability mapping at a reconnaissance level v/as suggested, and a broad categorisation of present land use was determined for an area ;-of 800 km2 in the north-east Highlands, as a preliminary indication of the areas involved. Finally, an attempt was made, using information derived from many sources, to calculate the secondary store-lamb output which might be possible from given quantities of primary production, assuming two different levels of flock management, Estimates were then made of the proportions of specific land units which would be required to support the higher level of output thus proposed.

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With some of the highest urbanisation rates in the world, Sub-Saharan Africa faces serious challenges in providing sufficient, healthy and affordable foods for its growing urban populations. Urban biodiversity, such as homegardens can provide people with healthy food products in addition to other ecosystem services. However urban plant systems are under threat, and even though they provide multiple uses they are still poorly understood. In this dissertation, I explored two urban landscape options: homegardens and wild collection. The overall aim of this study was to provide an understanding of the current and potential contribution of urban plant resources to human wellbeing (with a focus on food security) in Kampala, Uganda. To fulfil this aim, I created 4 objectives: 1) to assess plant species composition and use in Kampala’s homegardens, 2) to explore associations between homegardens and socio-economic determinants of dietary diversity and fruit consumption of children aged 2-5 years, 3) to explore the prevalence and determinants of wild plant collectors in Kampala, Uganda, and 4) to assess the extent and importance of alternative food sources of different food groups for low income people. Through a two-stage cluster sampling design in inner-, outer- and peri-urban parts of the city, 96 low-income households were purposively selected in nine parishes. These homegardens were inventoried, plant uses were documented and respondents interviewed on socio-economic data, the status of household food insecurity and food sources. In addition, respondents were asked about wild collection behaviour. Dietary data (for Dietary Diversity Score (DDS) and Food Variety Score (FVS)) were collected from an index child (aged 2-5 years) and the child’s female caretaker. In the final dataset (n=74) a total of 270 plant species were identified of which 248 different food plants were considered useful: 101 medicinal species, 70 food plants, 53 technical plants and 24 ornamental species. Even though this study provided no direct evidence that higher garden agrobiodiversity improves dietary diversity and nutritional status of children during the fieldwork season, comparisons with secondary data suggests that the children included in this study have better nutritional status then urban children in Uganda overall. This could indicate that children with access to homegardens have better nutritional status. Moreover 5% of the food items consumed during the recall was derived from the homegardens and 33% of the food items came from neighbours or friends. In addition, half of the respondents reported collecting wild plants during the six months preceding the interview. From the total of 48 different plant species declared, almost half (23 species) were collected for food purposes, while the other 25 species were collected for medicinal purposes and were also collected more frequently. The findings indicate that urban homegardens and wild space can play an important role in human wellbeing. It is important to incorporate biodiversity and green structures in urban landscape designs to create holistic sustainable cities. However, this requires transdisciplinary collaborations between city planners, ecologists, human nutritionists and ethnobotanists. Highly valuable (and nutritious) plant species should be selected and promoted. Innovative practices should be developed and tested to lift the current barriers and challenges that keep people from growing them. The overall value of gardens and green space should be acknowledged and local knowledge rewarded. These are necessary steps that need to be taken to keep urban gardens and urban green space worthy of being in the city without being thought of as rural or polluted. Most importantly it provides Kampala with an opportunity to remain a leading green Garden City.