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The problem of a tendency to low incomes in agriculture is outlined, which is particularly marked on small farms, the problems of farm size definition and income measurement are considered, the relative importance of small farms indicated, and the general relationship of farm size and farm returns is examined. The underlying causes of income trends in agriculture are considered, as well as several possible moons of raising farm incomes, The usual explanation of low farm earnings is given some attention, and the effects of rapidly changing technology and economies of scale on the position of the small scale producer provide an explanation of a good deal of the low return to the operator's labour. Policies of general agricultural support and those more specifically aimed at small farmers are reviewed. An evaluation is carried out of the Small Farm (Business Management) (Scotland) Scheme, 1965, which is the most recent of the specific policy schemes, with the conclusion that such schemes are unlikely to offer a solution to the problem of low incomes on small farms, A more likely solution lies in structural adjustment in agriculture and various aspects of this process are examined. It becomes evident that agricultural adjustment cannot occur in isolation as it has profound effects in rural depopulation. To avoid depopulation, yet still allow some of the farm labour force to achieve occupational mobility requires regional development to take place at the sometime as agricultural adjustment, A policy to bring about a better agricultural structure, better employment opportunities in rural areas and a modernised settlement pattern is outlined, and shown to be financially feasible within the present public expenditure on agriculture and regional development.

Since 2010 a policy network on urban agriculture (UA) has emerged in Bangkok, incorporating policy actors from both governmental and non-governmental bodies. This study argues that multiple forms of social capital – including shared rules, reputation, trust, reciprocity, moral obligation, shared norms and shared knowledge among various actors – have shaped the functioning of this policy network since its emergence. In addition, the study argues that these forms of social capital support the capacity of the policy network to enhance cooperation and handle conflicts. The role of social capital in governing the UA policy network is examined in relation to the floods experienced in Bangkok between late 2011 and early 2012. The analytical framework adopted is based on two contrasting theories: Ostrom’s institutional rational choice (IRC) and Habermas’ communicative action theory (CAT). Both are applied to link social capital and policy network studies. Following these two perspectives, this study conceptualises social capital by considering both rational and normative commitments. By focusing on IRC and CAT perspectives on power, this study analyses how instrumental, communicative and structural power relates to social capital. Findings reveal that the aforementioned forms of social capital influenced the emergence of the policy network by determining the status of the network’s constituent organisations and groups and their power relations. Members of organisations and groups that shared forms of knowledge agreed that the reason for cooperation was epistemic, while reciprocity and moral obligation supported their decision to cooperate. The study also found that the reputable and trusted organisational leader within the network, who shared rules, norms and knowledge with others, played a key role in facilitating a deliberative process while handling conflicts. The analysis aims to bridge social capital and policy network studies, and reveals the benefits of articulating IRC and CAT to understand policy network governance.

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Sustainable Intensification (SI) of agriculture has recently received widespread political attention, in both the UK and internationally. The concept recognises the need to simultaneously raise yields, increase input use efficiency and reduce the negative environmental impacts of farming systems to secure future food production and to sustainably use the limited resources for agriculture. Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) techniques were used for the investigation of changes in Total Factor Productivity in East Anglia. More specifically, the Malmquist Index and its components (scale, technical and pure efficiency) was used to derive information on productivity over time. Furthermore, the research reported here provides a benchmarking tool to assess water use efficiency, to suggest pathways to improve farm level productivity and to identify best practices for reducing or preventing water pollution. The results of the analysis suggest that the majority of the farms use water resources efficiently both for irrigation and general agricultural purposes, but there is the potential for improvement on some farms. Moreover, the results suggest that farms on the efficiency frontier can provide useful information with regards to operational and managerial changes that can be made to improve the performance of irrigation systems and water productivity. In addition, the analysis of returns to scale provides pathways for long term improvements and planning. The outcome could be used to strategically position a farm in relation to the long term average cost curve and, hence, improve economic efficiency and productivity of the GCFs. In addition, DEA models were used to successfully assign weights to specific environmental pressures that allow the identification of appropriate production technologies for each farm and therefore indicate specific improvements that can be undertaken towards SI. Furthermore, through appropriate econometric modelling this research explored the impacts of various managerial and farm characteristics on the improvement of sustainable intensification. It is concluded that education and advanced managerial skills can increase the environmental awareness of farmers and build knowledge and understanding of the challenges of food production. Moreover, agri-environmental payments can be an effective policy for the reduction of environmental pressures deriving from farming.

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This research explored the conditions that enable and constrain innovation in Britain's system of agricultural innovation. At the meso-level of the system, this research focused on the role of regulation and legislation in influencing the development and diffusion of technologies and methods for crop production. To do this, the recent change under EC Regulation 1107/2009 'Placing Plant Protection Products on the Market' was followed through the system of innovation using a multi-sited ethnographic approach to understand how the system shaped the legislation and how the system responded to the legislation. The most notable system response to the legislation is the adjustment of agrochemical company pesticide discovery strategy and their expansion into biologically derived treatments. There have also been responses by seed companies, agricultural consultancies, levy bodies and the science base. To empirically demonstrate the adaptations that mayor may not occur as a result of 1107/2009, a mixed method case study was developed at the micro-level on potato growers and late blight protection because mancozeb, a widely used fungicide, is at risk of withdrawal under the legislation. This case study explores what methods of control are available for protection against late blight and what methods (chemical and non-chemical) growers might adopt if fungicide mancozeb is withdrawn. This case study links system-level innovation forces to the micro-level choices growers make. The conclusion reached is that potato growers will default to the other chemical fungicides available due to competing forces in the system of innovation. In the case of potatoes and late blight in Great Britain, the virulent nature of late blight locks growers in to fungicide use and market barriers lock them out of adopting blight resistant varieties of potatoes.

Decision making and food choice are consumer behaviours that dominate individual lives, group interactions, and national debate. The concept of food culture is the combination of the two behaviours. A nation's food culture offers a snapshot into their consumption and eating practices through the actions taken by its people in relation to food. It represents the enduring influence of culture on consumption behaviour, which also evolves based on situational and environmental influences. In comparison to other countries and regions, Northern Ireland is not traditionally considered to have such an easily identifiable food culture. In this sense, the features of the nation's relationship with food are not widely known. The study aimed to determine the nature of food, culture and decision making in a Northern Ireland context, thereby enable the salient features of the region's food culture to be identified and the implications ascertained for the food supply chain. Based on this aim, objectives were formulated and an age-related methodology was developed. Four phases of research were conducted to correspond to four stages of the lifecycle - childhood (n=186), adolescence (n=349), adulthood (n=104), and elderly (n=31). Data collection methods included the draw and write technique, surveys, and narrative interviews. The concept of a food kulture was proposed to characterise the shared heritage that exists in relation to food choice behaviour in Northern Ireland. Food kulture is described as representing a less distinct connection between people and food, whereby unconscious markers may be observed to identify behaviour. A descriptive model of food kulture was developed highlighting the key thematic results of the study. Results emphasise the balance between decisions made which demonstrate individual choice and those reflecting cultural echoes of learned behaviour. The period between adolescence and adulthood was identified as being pivotal in the development of a food consumer who is likely to achieve a nutritionally balanced diet. A reversion to past eating habits was witnessed in the elderly sample, who introduced new foods and practices into their diet but continued to return to their personal food history. Implications for the food supply chain recognise the positive nature of the collective sample's eating habits, which suggest optimism in the continued growth of the agri-food sector. A key recommendation from the study is for increased awareness of Northern Ireland's food kulture and its impact on the sectors of the food supply chain and health promotion/nutrition education.