Proponents of restorative justice aspire to create a radical alternative to the 'traditional' way of thinking about - and responding to - crime. This thesis will examine many of the key aspirations of restorative justice advocates. It will do so on the basis of critical analysis of restorative justice literature and the evidence collected in the course of an empirical study, which involved interviews with participants in family group conferences. The thesis will ask: - How realistic are the aspirations of restorative justice campaigners? - What happens when restorative justice ideals are pursued in practice? - Can restorative justice, as practised within one restorative justice project, claim the mantle of a victim-centred, lay-oriented, empowering, voluntary justice and present a true alternative to the existing paradigms of justice? - What insights can lay participants in restorative justice interventions bring into the debate about restorative justice? - Are there problems, tensions and dangers - highlighted by this empirical study - inherent in the current development of restorative justice? This thesis will demonstrate the existence of a significant gap between aspirations of proponents and practical realities of restorative justice. It will suggest that this gap is unlikely to be minimised, unless restorative justice advocates radically re-consider and alter the direction in which restorative justice is presently evolving. Some suggestions will be made indicating what could be done to minimise the gap. This thesis will critically analyse some important debates among restorative justice advocates. A particular focus will be on the debate concerning the relationship between restorative justice and the criminal justice system. The implications of the reliance of restorative justice on the state justice system will be examined in the light of empirical data, and it will be argued that the dependence of restorative justice on the criminal justice system is very problematic and needs to be avoided. It will be suggested that some of the present debates concerning the relationship between restorative justice and the state justice system need to be re-focused and new ones need to be opened. In the light of empirical findings and on the basis of theoretical arguments, the thesis will criticise the tendency of certain restorative justice advocates to pre-define the objectives of restorative justice, in particular, make restorative justice operate in the name of reparation of harm. Dangers inherent in restricting the focus and goals of restorative justice will be examined. Through empirical analysis and theoretical reflections, the thesis will identify some other serious dangers and problems inherent in the current development of restorative justice. One major danger is that at present restorative justice may serve to individualise, neutralise and quickly and effectively expunge from the society conflicts with social-structural roots, and thereby prevent a possibility of challenges to social inequalities and injustices. Another major danger is that restorative justice employs its techniques of power to enable the state to govern its subjects at a distance, in a masked fashion, and, consequently, to minimise resistance to the state power and maximise regulatory efficiency. This thesis will suggest radically changing the direction in which restorative justice is developing, which might help avoid some of the present dangers.

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Little is known about the crime of adult male-on-male rape. The present study aims to explore the nature and impact of male rape on men's lives using statistics from SurvivorsUK (1344 cases) and a victimisation survey of 16 men to generate qualitative data for this purpose. The reluctance of men to report rape is explored using this data, as are men's needs in terms of service provision. Semi structured interviews with seven male rape counsellors are used to further examine these points. A newspaper content analysis over a 13-year period documents the emergence of male rape as a social and legal issue and also illustrates that male rape myths are perpetuated by coverage of this phenomenon. A questionnaire of 93 police officers across seven divisions of the Metropolitan Police Service considers police responses to, and attitudes towards, male rape, and demonstrates that such myths are manifest within the police service. The findings demonstrate that the impact of rape on men's lives is severe and that men experience rape trauma syndrome as identified in female rape victims. This trauma is intensified by rape myths rooted within society, perpetuated by newspapers, and manifest within the police service. An acute information gap in police training on male rape is identified and the research illustrates a strong need for multi-agency support systems for male survivors. The Male Victims of Sexual Abuse Steering Group is a multi-agency group chaired by the Metropolitan Police and established to draw information from different agencies to develop research and awareness of male rape and sexual abuse. Current initiatives from this group are presented. The research explores the theoretical positions of positivism, feminism and masculinities and examines the importance of these in understanding the male survivor of rape. In focusing on the experiences of male survivors the study identifies the need for social and cultural change to validate these experiences. It is suggested that these be supported with changes in legislation to include oral and object penetration under existing rape law so as to give legal recognition to these experiences. It is evident that policy changes are therefore needed to reflect the needs and demands for survivors of a very real social and legal issue. The research demonstrates a clear contribution to the theoretical debates in criminology which provide an understanding of rape, and which underpin the empirical work. The empirical work is a contribution to research in terms of understanding the phenomenon of male rape and the findings demonstrate the wider policy implications of that work. As such, the thesis is an advancement of knowledge and research and provides for future policy directions to support

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