Introduction: Bare footprints found at a crime scene can be used as forensic evidence to link a person to the incident using comparison methods. Identification relies upon methods of evaluation including measurement; however the science underpinning measurement in this field has not been fully explored. Method: A critical review of the literature revealed various measurement approaches and also demonstrated little or no measurement rigour in terms of reliability and validity. Therefore a novel pragmatic method for collecting and measuring two-dimensional bare foot impressions was developed by the researcher to provide the necessary tool for use in this field. Evaluation involved three static and three dynamic footprints collected from thirty female and thirty one male volunteers using an inkless paper system. The footprints were digitised and widths, lengths and angles constructed and automatically measured using freely vailable measurement software. Measurement rigour was pursued using modern validity and intra-/inter-rater reliability approaches followed by an evaluation of the tool by experts in the field. These explorations are presented within the thesis as separate investigations. Results: Statistically significant differences occurred between paired static and dynamic linear measurements (df 60) with t values ranging from 3.08 to 23.17, P < 0.01. The highest correlations with stature were shown to be the linear measurement from the heel to fifth toe print in the dynamic footprints (r = 0.858, P < 0.01). The reliability analysis found high intra-rater agreement using intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) 0.99 with a 95% standard error of measurement 0.84 mm, 95% limits of agreement (LOA) -0.91 to 0.65. Conclusion: The research establishes a valid and reliable two-dimensional measurement approach, useful for footprint identification purposes and also as a baseline method for further research in this field.

A large body of research findings suggests that verbal cues to deception can boost deception-detection accuracy rates to levels significantly above chance. This thesis examines the effectiveness of, and influences on, one of the most popular and widely used verbal lie-detection approaches, Reality Monitoring (RM). The RM approach has advantages not only in terms of its underpinnings in memory research and theory, but also its ease with regard to practical application. The RM approach assumes that deceptive verbal accounts, because they are artificial and not based directly on actual experience, differ from truthful accounts according to a variety of criteria (truthful accounts contain more vivid, spatial, temporal and affective information, etc.). However, so far, as in many other areas of lie-detection research, research in the area of RM has lacked methodological standardisation; consequently, we know little of the potential effects of contextual and other moderating variables on RM measures. In view of this, the primary aims of the present thesis were a) to assess whether, if conveyed in a standard format, the RM approach has any value overall in distinguishing between truthful and deceptive accounts, and b) if it does, to investigate the circumstances under which it might give optimal results; i.e. to assess some of the main factors which may moderate its efficacy in this respect. To these ends, six experimental studies were conducted which looked at truthful and deceptive accounts (generated by participants in the laboratory using video and autobiographical sources) and considered the effects of a number of different moderators; these included, first and second-language effects, modality (i.e. written vs. spoken discourse), absence/presence of others, demand characteristics effects, scoring systems (rating scales vs. raw frequencies) and standardisation for account length. Overall, results indicated that in most studies there was evidence that total RM scores, as determined by the procedures applied here, successfully discriminated between truthful and deceptive accounts. However, results varied when RM criteria were considered individually, and when the influence of various moderators was assessed. For example, frequency measures of spatial and temporal information were found to be two of the most consistently effective diagnostic RM criteria. However, overall, RM was a more effective diagnostic tool before accounts were standardised for length; indeed, total RM scores failed to distinguish between truthful and deceptive accounts after accounts had been standardised for length. Also, the presence of others and modality (written or spoken) were two key moderator variables whose impact on total RM scores varied depending on whether or not the accounts were standardised for length. A number of other related variables were also considered; for example, truthful accounts were longer than deceptive accounts in both duration and length and the number of words produced per second was significantly greater for truthful accounts. Implications for research and practise are discussed; though perhaps most important in this respect was the finding that, despite the overall success of RM in discriminating truthful from deceptive accounts, RM criteria were not generally discriminating after standardisation for word-count or length. Moreover, a number of the moderators affected RM scores regardless of whether they were derived from truthful or deceptive accounts. This suggests that we may still be a long way from developing a method (such as the use of normative criteria) that could be used in the field to classify individual cases. Nevertheless, in the meantime, at the very least, the present results suggest that when judging the veracity of accounts using RM criteria, the scoring and other moderating variables identified in this thesis should be investigated systematically, and measured and applied consistently, if researchers wish to compare and replicate findings within and across studies.

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This thesis examines acoustic parameters of five consonants /m, n, ŋ, l, s/ in two dialects of British English: Standard Southern British English and Leeds English. The research aims to explore population distributions of the acoustic features, gauge cross-dialectal variation, and discover new parameters for application in forensic speaker comparison casework. The five parameters investigated for each segment are: For /m, n, ŋ, l/: Normalised duration, Centre of gravity, Standard deviation, Frequency at peak amplitude, Frequency at minimum amplitude For /s/: Normalised duration, Centre of gravity, Standard deviation, Skewness, Kurtosis The work contributes firstly to the general phonetic literature by presenting acoustic data for a number of parameters and consonant segments that have not been previously studied in depth in these dialects. Secondly, the research informs the forensic phonetic literature by considering the intra- and inter-speaker variability and gauging the relative speaker-specificity of each acoustic feature. Discriminant analysis and likelihood ratio estimation assess the discrimination ability of each feature, and results highlight several promising parameters with potential for application in forensic speaker comparison casework.

The key aim of this thesis is to examine the roles being undertaken by non-warranted civilian investigators (CIs) in relation to those of warranted police detectives (DCs) working within police forces across England and Wales (E&W). Formally introduced by the Police Reform Act 2002, CIs are non-warranted members of police staff charged with assisting warranted officers with their investigative enquiries. Specifically, the research examines the extent to which CIs can be considered in terms of being a ‘junior partner’ or a ‘paraprofessional’ role to that of their warranted detective counterparts. The study employed a mixed methods research design and drew upon data collected via a series of semi-structured interviews with police officers and police staff, observation and a semi-structured survey which was sent to all of the 43 police constabularies across E&W. Findings point to the widespread yet inconsistent uptake of the CI provision by police forces across the country. Overall, CIs were found to be contributing to the investigation of most crime types including the most serious in some instances (e.g. murder, rape and domestic abuse). However, the research also draws attention to a high level of disparity in the utilisation of CIs between forces. The research found that in some units CIs have become increasingly utilised in tasks outside of their intended ‘supportive’ remit and, in some cases, are in fact being afforded a role which is almost identical to that of warranted police detectives. Despite the evolving nature of their role and evidence of continued ‘mission creep’, findings suggested that CIs continue to enjoy a secondary and in some respects outsider status within the police organisation, enjoying only marginal valuing and limited integration. These conditions are currently being sustained by the ‘civilian’ designation of CIs alongside powerful actors in the field of policing and politics and the weakness or absence of any alternative (or convincing) narrative on how effective investigation might be achieved. This research provides a much-needed insight into the impact of recent civilianising trends on ‘core’ areas of police service provision. It also contributes to a growing body of information on the increasing significance of the role now being played by private security in public policing and more specifically, to the blurring of occupational and sectoral boundaries with regard to the provision of ‘professional’ criminal investigation in E&W. The thesis concludes by arguing that the utilisation of CIs may be instigating a renegotiation of the boundaries surrounding the role of the warranted police detective and in turn, the dilution of professional orthodoxies in the investigative specialism. The uncertain future trajectory of the CI role may, in coming years, encourage disputes over the title and role of the ‘detective’, as recognition of the proficiency of CIs continues to call into question the legitimacy of the warranted detective’s claim to professional jurisdiction in respect of contemporary criminal investigation.

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This exploratory study sought to understand the role of volume crime investigators in the modern era. It attempted to gain officers` perceptions on the attributes required to be a successful at the role. In addition, the research sought to understand how modern investigators thought success should be defined and measured in relation to individual investigator performance. Chapter One explored previous research relating to police investigators and success, and identified the main research questions that define the programme of research. Key considerations were whether success could be identified, how it could be measured and whether high performers could be distinguished from their peers.Thirty attributes were identified from previous research to form part of Studies One and Two. Study One examined volume crime investigators` perceptions of their role, success and the skills and abilities required to be successful were identified using a questionnaire. Findings were consistent with previous research, as respondents ranked areas such as communication skills, commitment, dedication, decision-making and motivation highly. Surprisingly, areas such as education, stability, empathy, training and intelligence ranked lower than expected. Respondents appeared consistent in suggesting detections as a measure of success but with a caveat that it was not utilised as the sole measurement of success. Study Two asked investigators to identify successful investigators from amongst their peers. Respondents appeared to choose peers who were older, more experienced and trained in investigation and various themes were explored as to why this may have been the case. Respondents also ranked the thirty attributes on the basis of how prevalent they were in successful peers. These rankings were not entirely consistent with Study One rankings. Areas such as experience and persistence ranked higher, although stability, education, training, empathy and intelligence still ranked low.In Study Three high and low performers were identified by objective means. Several obstacles were encountered in trying to obtain relevant data from the participating forces. The range of data available was surprisingly low in the modern era. High and low detection sets were compared to each other, as well as to the high and low choice sets identified from Study Two. Age and length of service reduced, and the high detection set contained only a third of the high choice set, suggesting that respondents ability to distinguish high performers was far from foolproof, and may have been rooted in cultural beliefs about effectiveness. High and low performing groups were identified and compared. In Study Four, high and low performers were compared in relation to mean scores achieved on the NEO personality inventory. This measured respondents in five personality domains and thirty individual facets. There were no significant differences between the groups in relation to the domains, and there was only one significant difference in relation to the facet of gregariousness. This relates to a persons sociability and is part of the domain of Extraversion. No correlations were found between scores achieved and objective and subjective measures of success. Training stood out as a significant difference between the groups, with almost all those in the high performing group being trained in the national investigator programme as opposed to fewer trained in the low performing group. Various reasons were posited for this difference, but it is possible that this result demonstrates the effectiveness of investigator training. Study Five compared each group in relation to critical thinking skills, as respondents in previous studies had ranked reasoning, judgment and decision-making as important to success. There were no significant differences in relation to overall scores or individual subset scores. Correlations were found between overall test scores, individual subset scores and manager performance ratings, suggesting that a relationship exists. Various reasons were explored for the lack of difference between the groups, and it was posited that dispositional factors might make a difference as to whether an investigator used their innate skills. Study Six compared each group in relation to scores achieved on Ravens Standard Progressive Matrices (a test designed to measure intellectual capacity), as well as the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (designed to measure multiple dimensions of empathy). Both of these areas ranked low in respondents rankings in previous studies. No significant differences were discovered in relation to either intelligence or empathy, nor were any correlations found with objective or subjective measures of success. The SPM measures fluid intelligence. It does not measure crystallised intelligence or indeed other forms of intelligence. Whilst it might be tempting to suggest that intelligence plays no part in the success or otherwise of investigations because of the negative finding here, caution is needed. This study does not explore other forms of intelligence, nor does it explore dispositional factors that might make a difference as to whether an individual uses their abilities. Chapter Eight discusses the programme of research, considers methodological issues, and makes suggestions for further research.

This thesis centres on issues of policing accountability and oversight. It examines the extent to which the police oversight agencies in the United Kingdom and Ireland with the remit for investigating deaths involving the police have evolved and adapted their investigative practice and capacity to meet the positive obligation under Article 2 of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) created by the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) of conducting an effective investigation of any state caused death. It first examines the problem presented by deaths involving the police and considers a number of typologies of deaths involving the police. The thesis then examines the evolution and contextual operation of three police oversight agencies, the Office of the Police Ombudsman for Northern Ireland, the Independent Police Complaints Commission and the Garda Síochána Ombudsman Commission. It then conducts a critical analysis of the evolution of the positive obligation under Article 2 of the ECHR and the development through European Court jurisprudence of the five standards of an effective investigation: independence, adequacy, timeliness, victim involvement and public scrutiny. The theory of Europeanization of Human Rights and the process by which European Court decisions impact upon domestic states is explored. An evaluation of the response to the Article 2 obligations by each of the oversight agencies from the perspective of those responsible for the investigation of deaths involving the police is conducted through qualitative interviews with senior investigating officers. The importance of the “political will” to conduct investigations as per the definition put forward by Luna and Walker has also been considered. Using Borzel and Risse’s definition of the degrees of domestic change caused by Europeanization the thesis concludes that the arrangements for policing oversight policies, processes and institutions have been “transformed” by the Article 2 obligations imposed by the ECtHR. It further concludes that the independence of oversight agencies is a complicated concept and is dependent on several interlinking variables that cannot be described or evaluated in simple linear terms. The performance and capacity of oversight agencies to meet the five standards is not constant and can be impacted upon by both internal and external factors. Oversight agencies can be seen to follow Herzog’s model of scandal and reform. The capacity of the oversight agencies to conduct investigations into deaths involving the police employing ‘high policing’ methods as defined by Brodeur is also explored. Finally, the research assesses whether in the viewpoint of the police oversight investigators the standards set by Europe are relevant, realistic and achievable in practice.

Carbene intermediates can be generated by thermal, photochemical and transition metal catalysed processes from diazoalkanes. The carbene intermediates are very reactive and can add across double bonds to give 3-membered rings (cyclopropanes), insert into -OH bonds to give esters or ethers and insert into neighbouring -C-H bonds to give 4 or 5-membered rings, such as β- and γ-lactams or γ-lactones. Copper salts and complexes were amongst the first catalysts to be used for carbene generation from diazoalkanes. However, current tendencies are to use very expensive, especially, platinum group salts and complexes to generate the carbene intermediates, as yields and specificity tend to be higher. We have found that Cu²⁺-exchanged clay minerals (e.g. Wyoming bentonite) and zeolites (zeolite A), have proven to be very competitive in yield with such transition metal catalysts and they have the added advantage that the restricted reaction space within the zeolite pore or clay interlayer favours the more planar/less bulky product. With the clay minerals, when the layer spacing is kept low by judicious choice of mineral or solvent, the selectivity is improved. Herein we report a wide range of carbene addition (cyclopropane formation) and -C-H insertion reactions (β-lactam, γ-lactam and β-lactone formation) catalysed by the Cu²⁺-exchanged clay minerals and the stereochemical consequences of carrying out the reactions within the clay interlayer. Preliminary studies on the successful formation of aziridines from azides via nitrene intermediates with Cu²⁺-exchanged clay minerals are also reported.