A large and growing proportion of the world’s population rely on shared sanitation facilities. These have historically been excluded from international sanitation targets due to concerns about acceptability, hygiene and access. With the development of new targets and indicators for the Sustainable Development Goals, it has been proposed to include shared facilities as ‘improved’ sanitation based on the number of users, if the facility is of an ‘improved’ technology and if the users are known to each other. The aim of this research was threefold: i) to provide an overview of the available evidence on shared sanitation and outcomes related to health, access, use, operation and maintenance, gender and cost, ii) to describe the geographic and demographic scope of shared sanitation globally, and iii) to develop and pilot methods exploring factors that may explain any increased risk of adverse health outcomes associated with shared sanitation. Results from a systematic literature review on shared sanitation and health showed that households accessing shared sanitation facilities were more likely to suffer from ill-health, specifically diarrhoea. However, the methodological quality of the available studies was limited. The global analysis of household survey data showed that households sharing sanitation facilities were poorer, less educated and more likely to live in urban areas. The majority of households accessing shared sanitation were found in Africa and South-East Asia. The results from the literature review and household survey data led to the development of a cross-sectional study in Orissa, India. This study aimed to assess differences in shared and private sanitation access in 30 slums—both in terms of the users and the actual facilities. Results from this study show that households accessing shared sanitation were poorer, less educated and less likely to have water access in or near their home. In addition, significant differences in terms of cleanliness and presence of water were observed between private and shared facilities. Users of shared sanitation were more likely to continue practicing open defecation and significantly more cases of diarrhoea were reported by individuals living in these households. The underlying reasons for this potential increased risk of disease for users of shared sanitation are not clear, but the type of users, cleanliness of facilities and opportunities to practice good hygiene are all expected to play a role. As such, these factors may also be of importance, in addition to the number of users and sanitation technology, if a shared sanitation facility is expected to be considered ‘improved’ sanitation in future monitoring targets.

This thesis investigates the explanatory value of Martin Janicke's model of capacity for environmental policy reform by empirically applying it to the context of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) management in the cities of Delhi and London, mainly during the period 1990 and 2003. The research included a critical review of the existing literature, extensive interviews and secondary sources. The analysis also draws on policy networks theory to analyse interactions between the range of state and non-state actors influencing the environmental policy process. The investigation suggests that, while it is a powerful explanatory tool when applied to MSW policy reform in Delhi and London, Janicke's model underestimates the predominant role played by institutional factors in determining capacity for environmental policy reform. This predominance is established by an examination of how institutional conditions, characterised by particular types of policy networks, mediate the relationship between pressure for environmental protection and effective policy reform. Interactions reflecting the entrenched interests of dominant actors in the policy network influence the alternatives considered for MSW policy reform in both cases in ways that constrains the drive for more environmental sustainability. The thesis concludes that effective policy reform is unlikely to be achieved without institutional change aimed at increasing institutional capacity. The thesis, in its comparative institutional analysis of MSW management in Delhi and London, contributes to the scholarship in the field of capacity building as well as wider international efforts towards sustainable development. It is of immediate relevance to both academic and policy debates.

This thesis contributes to the environmental economics and policy of sustainable municipal solid waste management. Significant market and government failures are present that lead to inefficiently high levels of waste generation and distort the optimal allocation of waste to the various disposal options available. The aims of the thesis are to identify and analyse the socio-economic, policy, spatial, as well as attitudinal determinants of municipal solid waste generation, disposal and recycling, at the international macro-economic level and at the household level. The former is conducted using cross-sectional time-series data from the 30 member countries of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) over the period 1980 to 2000, whereas the latter is undertaken using original survey data collected from 188 households in London, UK. Three distinct methods have been adopted to undertake this investigation namely panel data econometrics, spatial econometrics techniques, and the stated preference choice experiment method. Conforming with previous studies, the results from the panel data econometrics indicate that waste generation is income inelastic. However, higher income levels are associated with smaller proportions of municipal solid waste disposed of at landfills and greater proportions of paper/cardboard and glass recycling. The role of urbanisation, population density and waste management policies are also examined. Moreover, spatial interaction is present in waste management and policy-making suggesting that governments may be acting strategically in their decision-making processes. Finally, the results from the choice experiment indicate that households are willing to pay for the number of 'dry' materials collected, and the collection of compost, while textile collection and the frequency of kerbside collection is less important. These insights into municipal solid waste management can assist policy-makers in designing and implementing efficient and cost-effective policies in developed countries, helping to promote sustainable municipal solid waste management.

It has been acknowledged in Mexico that there is a need to increase the infrastructure for the adequate management of hazardous wastes, and therefore hazardous waste management decision-making needs to be improved. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a component for granting permission for, and the licensing of, waste treatment and disposal facilities in many countries. In Mexico, EIA is considered an important instrument of environmental policy; however, its practice and effectiveness in decision making has been questioned. Studies about the influence of EIA in decision making have analysed effects of EIA on decisions prior to formal application and during the EIA process concluding that EIA has limited or weak influence in decision making. EIA was founded on the rational model of decision making, which assumes that EIA is a process for generating, organising, and communicating information. However, it has been advanced that environmental assessment based on the rational model of decision making is inadequate to determine EIA’s influence. Thus, research regarding the different models of EIA and its influence could provide guidance to increase the effect of EIA on decision making. Therefore, the objective of this thesis is to critically evaluate the influence of EIA on the decision-making process for Hazardous Waste Management Facilities (HWMF) in Mexico. A case study research design and a qualitative research strategy (semi-structured interviews and documents) were used. During the different stages of decision making for HWMF different theoretical models of EIA and potential outcomes were identified. The theoretical models of EIA identified include the information processing, participation, institutional, political economy, and symbolic politics. The findings in this research indicate that the rational decision making model was limited at explaining how decision making occurred. Rather, decision making for HWMF was similar to the bounded rationality, incrementalism, and mixed-scanning theoretical model. Thus, recommendations are made for increasing the opportunity for EIA to influence decision making and for improving the Mexican EIA system.

Over the past thirty years the reliance on Information Communication Technologies (ICT’s) has generated a new form of waste called e-waste. E-waste is one of the fastest growing waste streams. It is well known that ICT’s contain materials that, without proper care, are harmful to the environment. The EU responded to these concerns through the creation of the Waste of Electronic and Electrical Equipment (WEEE) Directive, introduced into the UK in 2006. WEEE aims to control electrical and electronic waste through the promotion of reducing, reuse, recycling and recovery. The intention is to improve the environmental profile of those operating within the waste sector with the intention of protecting soil, water and air pollution and to preserve valuable resources. Despite the raised awareness of the problems e-waste contributes globally there is a limited understanding of the significance of the growth of the new form of waste and, specifically, local enactments of waste management. The focus of this thesis is how six organizations within the computer recovery sector have adopted the WEEE legislation. Insights from neo-institutional theory provide an aid to understanding the impact that the legislation has had on the working practices of six organisations dealing with e-waste. An action research approach was adopted for the field research as a means of collecting and analysing qualitative data. In this thesis three arguments are developed. First is that the implementation of the WEEE legislation rests upon the initial categorization of a computer at the point of disposal. Categories relating to waste are not static, but constantly evolving as local negotiation takes place between dominant actor groups. The findings support how categorization determines the trajectory of a computer and plays a crucial role in influencing and reinforcing the boundaries around associated working practices. Second, that the WEEE legislation has created a framework through which institutional entrepreneurs have been able to both bring about changes in their organisation but also to stabilise specific working practices. Institutional entrepreneurs achieve this by mobilising changes to the products and services their organization offers in the context of an emergent institutional field and by reinforcing their occupational identity. Third, that legislation has raised awareness of the complexity of computer design and the multiplicity of disposal practices, but it has also reinforced long-standing associations of waste as a particular type of occupation with specific organizational practices.

Modem understanding about waste management has provided a general hierarchy to deal with waste, with a priority in the reduction or minimisation of the amount of waste generated. Different methodologies have been devised to aid the process of implementing waste minimisation in the process industries. However, waste minimisation methodologies are still underestimated or disregarded due to several misconceptions about their applicability. One reason believed to cause this is the lack of an accurate way to identify suitable waste reduction techniques. This arises from a mismatch between the existing methodologies and the information available at the time of the study. An appropriate approach to overcome this situation must consider a more efficient manipulation and analysis of the available information, optimising the cost and time required to obtain the critical missing data. The structured organisation of the knowledge about a process regarding its description, environmental concerns and available resources provides an effective way to identify the areas which need attention for the purpose of waste minimisation and facilitates the definition of activities that have to be performed to implement the devised solutions. The approach presented in this contribution considers the use of knowledge management tools to support the assessment of information required for a reliable waste minimisation study. The study presents a methodological framework based on knowledge management principles aimed to support the generation and implementation of waste minimisation strategies. This consists of a methodology that includes a collection of information management tools to support generation and evaluation of waste minimisation options in process industries. The overall framework is based on ontological principles that enable a more structured and targeted management of information (e.g. collection, generation, use, reuse or storage). The information is classified in four different domains embedded in a knowledge management structure: process description, environmental requirements, available documentation and waste minimisation methodologies. The approach enables the classification and retrieval of available information in a more efficient way, providing a more structured framework to support the identification and development of waste minimisation strategies. The research project provides a platform to successfully introduce knowledge management for the efficient implementation of waste minimisation strategies. The provided framework facilitates the gathering of information required to represent the process towards the goal of waste minimisation

No description available.

Lack of access to improved water sources and safe sanitation facilities remain a major developmental challenge facing many developing countries; especially in Sub-Saharan Africa. In the past 10 years of the United Nations' water for life decade, huge attention as well as resources at last have been given the issue, but the outcome in SSA in general and Nigerian in particular have been mixed and the current level is well below set targets. This study set out to explore improved water and sanitation (W A TSAN) access in Nigerian communities and factors influencing progress in the sector. A case study was designed and carried out in Abakaliki, the capital city of Ebonyi State, located in South-Eastern Nigeria. The study used mixed methods for data collection, which included structured household survey and focus group discussion carried out in the case study location. The findings from the study indicates that access to improved drinking water and sanitation facilities remain a significant challenge for households in the case study community, as is still the case across communities in Nigeria. Furthermore, critical W A TSAN infrastructures are undeveloped, and when they exist are so poorly managed that technical water losses are very high, as is the potential for re-contamination of even treated supply. There is also the issue of the municipal water service provider responsible for public water supply in the community lacking the necessary capacity and resources to be effective and deliver acceptable quality of service to households in the area. In other words, their quality of service was generally poor and most households in the community prefer or had to depend on the private sector water service providers (water vendors) to meet their water needs. Similarly, the quality of drinking water in the community is generally poor given that more than 80% of households in the sample, expressed concern about the quality or safety of their drinking water sources, but less than 50% of households carried out any form of further treatment at home before use. Consequently, reported incidences of waterborne diseases by households in the sample were high. Moreover, although there was a better overall gender parity (56% female and 44% male) in terms of the burden of water collection in the case study in contrast to the SSA region (81 % female and 19% male), the proportion of households where young female bore the burden for water collection alone remained unacceptably high in the community (32%), much higher than indicated for the region (9%). iii Taking into account available resources from literature and the field study, a framework to achieve better WATSAN outcomes in the community was proposed in this study. The framework is built around stakeholders' participation and emphasises empowerment and capacity development in the community as a way to achieve universal coverage as well as ensure sustainability and accountability through participatory governance in sector.

Introduction: My work with the Middlesex University Urban Pollution Research Centre has been conducted in the following areas: 1 Biological Monitoring of Urban Waters (Publications 1, 3, 5, 6, 25) Conventional biological methods and hydrobiological indices used for assessing water quality have been tested in urban streams and rivers and their limitations exposed. The impact of river engineering and physical disturbance on the substrate during storm events has been shown to influence significantly the index scores in addition to pollution impacts. The recommendation to compare biological with physico-chemical assessment of water quality has also been adopted by the National Rivers Authority. A model to predict the community diversity index score for urban stream macro invertebrate biota from recorded physico-chemical parameters was satisfactory for fairly clean waters and for moderate levels of pollution but not for serious levels of pollution (1). Reference streams and ponds in Trent Country Park on the fringe of North London were used for comparison with studies of the biota of urban waters (3,5). A system of river classification using a hydrobiological score system was proposed to complement the existing National Water Council system which was essentially based on chemical criteria (6). A study of the use of indicator organisms to monitor the impact of localised discharges of urban surface runoff and storm sewer overflows was commissioned by the Water Research Centre, the results of which are reported in paper no. 14. A review of the use of macroinvertebrates and plants as bioindicators in urban aquatic systems is included in publication 25. 2 Aquatic Ecotoxicology (Publications 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 11, 12, 14, 21, 24, 26, 28, 32, 34) 2.1 Heavy Metals Innovative methods have been developed for assessing heavy metal bioaccumulation in selected macro invertebrate species in urban waters. Traditionally, toxicity tests have been conducted in controlled laboratory conditions which do not simulate the natural environment. The use of caged macro invertebrates secured to the substrate in rivers, enables a more realistic determination of bioaccumulation and mortality rates to be made. The impact of storm events and chronic exposure to contaminated water and sediment has been investigated. At a time when new ecotoxicological tests are being introduced to the UK and the EC, the research has considerable potential application as a test for heavy metal impacts and the determination of environmental standards in freshwater. (The research has been sponsored by the Water Research Centre). VI Tissue concentrations of lead, cadmium, copper and zinc in selected macroinvertebrates collected from semi-rural and urban streams and ponds are reported in papers 3, 4 and 5. The relationship between urbanisation and macro invertebrate tissue, sediment and water metal concentrations and their spatial trends along the Salmon's Brook in North London is discussed in publication 6 and compared with the results from the A veiro Lagoon and its feeding rivers in North Portugal in paper 7. Tissue metal bioaccumulation in popUlations of caged Gammarus pUlex, Asellus aquaticus and Lymnea peregra in relation to ambient sediment and water metal concentrations, metal species bioavailability and organism feeding behaviour are discussed in publication 9. A comparison of mortality and metal uptake in aquatic macroinvertebrate species in field studies and laboratory experiments and a recommendation to reduce the length and lethal limit of the traditional 96 hour LC50 test is made in papers 11, 21, 24 and 32. The impact of storm sewer overflows from a sewage treatment works on caged macro invertebrates exposed to the discharges and to the receiving waters immediately downstream is reported in publications 12, 14 and 24. Principal component analysis was used to determine combinations of caged Aselius aquaticus tissue, sediment and water metal concentrations, precipitation volumes and antecedent dry periods which explained much of the variation in organism mortality and weight (28, 34). 2.2 Hydrocarbons (Publications 15 - 20, 29) Caged macro invertebrate species have also been used to determine hydrocarbon bioaccumulation in an urban stream and the Welsh Harp reservoir, a site of special scientific interest. Sediment and water hydrocarbon concentrations and macro invertebrate community diversity have been monitored along the stream and in the reservoir to investigate the impact of an oil boom. The development of biological and chemical techniques in this unique study of an urban freshwater wetland has led to considerable interest and further publications are planned. (The research has been sponsored by English Nature, formerly the Nature Conservancy Council). Publications 15 and 16 describe a baseline study of the ecotoxicological impacts resulting from oil pollution on the Welsh Harp and one of its receiving streams. Sediment and water concentrations of alkanes and P AHs and the tissue concentrations and temporal and spatial trends in selected caged macro invertebrates and fish are reported in publications 17, 18 and 19. The bioaccumulation of hydrocarbons by macro invertebrate species in laboratory tests and the corresponding mortality rates and their comparison with the results of field studies and controlling factors are discussed in publication 20. The results of the study are summarised in paper 29. vii 3 Aquatic Macrophyte Pollution Control (Publications 10, 13, 22, 23, 27, 31, 33, 35) Heavy metal uptake by the reedmace Typha latifolia, an aquatic plant species, has been investigated in urban wetlands and in greenhouse based studies. The research has shown a high level of tolerance by Typha to heavy metals and its biofiltration ability and creation of a sediment metal sink. It has led to the introduction of Typha in pioneering designs of constructed wetlands for highway runoff treatment in the UK. (The research is ongoing and is receiving sponsorship from industry and PCFC). A comparison of the water pollution control performance of Typha latifolia in the UK and Eicchomia crassipes in China is discussed in publication 10. Further details of the study of metal uptake in Typha latifolia and its associated sediment in the Welsh Harp and two ornamental ponds and a comparison with the results of a greenhouse based metal dosing experiment are given in papers 13 and 27 and summarised in 23 and 31. An analysis of the metal and hydrocarbon uptake and biofiltration ability of different species of aquatic macrophyte in an experimental pond receiving runoff from a car park in Washington State, USA is described in report 33.

Food waste, a global concern for several years, has gained attention from Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) research that aims to promote more sustainable lifestyles. Many researchers believe that domestic food waste is influenced by consumer behaviors that are promoted during everyday practices. The research described in this thesis starts with an investigation into the factors that influence consumer decision-making in ways that leads to food waste. The investigation was conducted using a combination of structured interviews, automatic collection of images from participants’ fridges, and Wizard-of-Oz interventions. The four causal variables of VBN theory are used throughout the thesis to structure and analyze data. These four variables are attitudinal factors, personal capabilities, contextual forces and habits or routines. The most significant of these factors, leading to the greatest amount of domestic food waste, is lack of awareness of fridge contents. This is addressed by building an effective context-aware persuasive technology. In an initial experiment, the design and implementation of a first prototype is proposed to investigate the impact of the context-aware persuasive technology system on behavior change and decision-making process. The findings indicated that availability of information about fridge contents was not in itself sufficient to persuade users to develop new habits or routines, and that contextual forces such as a busy lifestyle meant that users did not in fact enhance their personal capabilities by accessing the information about fridge contents, and that their old habits remained entrenched. These findings informed the design of an improved second prototype, called ‘EyeFridge’. This prototype has the novel functionality of pushing information over to users through notifications and reminders. A Wizard-of-Oz investigation allowed the effectiveness of these interventions to be studied without the need to build a fully functional intelligent fridge. The findings indicate that notifications and reminders overcame contextual forces and enhanced participants’ personal capabilities (by adding to their knowledge of fridge contents) so that they developed new habits or routines. Therefore, changed consumer behavior and influenced decision-making process related to food practices.