The landscape for waste collection is ever changing. With constant adjustments in Government, increasing budget restrictions and changes in Legislation, Local Authorities have to adapt their collection methods to achieve the best recycling rates possible. The focus of their efforts is frequently on the cost; however there are many other drivers and barriers that they must pay attention to such as legislative compliance. The aim of this study was to understand the interaction of these drivers and barriers. More specifically, the decision making process that they follow. A long term, consistent decision making process is required to maximise the amount of recyclate they can collect. A study of the decision making methodologies showed that the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) was the easiest to understand and implement. By having an understandable methodology, the decision maker(s) have clarity and a solid reasoning for the choice they make. Also, by using a commonly understood software to create a programme meant a clear understanding and ownership of the decision made. Scenarios were created to understand how the criteria interact and affect the choice of waste collection method. The interaction of criteria dependent on the size and type of Local Authorities was examined. Of all the criteria that could be taken in to consideration, Legislative Compliance, Net Running Costs and the Quality of the Recyclate collected were repeatedly the most important. The results gathered from the Case Study Authority were checked against these scenarios and it was found that they performed in the same manner that was expected from their classification by type and size of authority. It was concluded that the decision making process, as a whole and in relation to waste management, was successfully understood. The novel development of the Analytic Hierarchy Process and inception of a decision making tool to clearly define the drivers and barriers that face a Local Authority were accomplished. The time sensitive nature of the process highlighted the difficulty assuring the right decision is made at any given time. Nevertheless, it was successfully applied to a Case Study Authority whose decision matched the ideals of the Welsh Government in suggesting a Kerbside Sort collection scheme.

The last decade has seen a shift away from disposal of waste in landfills to more environmentally desirable methods of waste management, such as recycling, composting and incineration. There is ongoing public concern about health risks associated with incineration. Epidemiological studies investigating exposure to incinerator emissions and risk of adverse birth outcomes are limited by poor exposure assessment lack of information on uptake of these emissions and the small numbers of birth outcomes explored. The aim of this thesis was to estimate population exposure to emissions from four municipal solid waste incinerators (MSWI) in England. Also, at an individual level, to design and undertake a study to ascertain the exposure profile to dioxins for women resident near two MSWIs. Finally, to compare the availability and quality of national birth data in England and make recommendations on their use in epidemiological studies of birth outcomes. The findings of this thesis have contributed to the ongoing national study being conducted by the Small Area Health Statistics Unit (SAHSU), investigating the association between MSWI emissions and the risk of adverse birth and neonatal outcomes in Great Britain (GB). Atmospheric dispersion modelling was undertaken to estimate population exposure to particulate matter as a proxy for all MSWI emissions. Model outputs presented will be used in the SAHSU study and the model developed rolled out for all MSWIs in GB. The Incinerators Biomonitoring Study achieved a study database of 97 participants, each providing breast milk samples and questionnaire information. The study showed variability in participation by demographic and lifestyle factors, alongside dietary dioxin intake estimates. The findings of this study will help to interpret the results of SAHSU's study, providing an insight into the relationship between MSWI exposure and total body burden of dioxins. Finally, a comparison of routine national birth data revealed variation in completeness and fields of information collected by dataset. Hospital birth data compared favourability with registry data at a national scale after 2002, with considerable improvements in quality between 2001 and 2010. However, large differences between datasets were observed at small area level, reflecting the influence of hospital provider effects on this dataset.

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This thesis unpacks the dynamic nature and architecture of the global e-waste (electronic and electrical waste) recycling network. It analyses the functions of formal (guided by regulatory apparatus) and informal sectors (usually outside the regulatory orbit) involved in waste production and processing and their structural inter-linkages to situate the process and practise of informality in e-waste in the realm of formal capitalist economy. Additionally, it investigates the impact of regulatory interventions on the waste network and the actors therein. It focuses on the spatiality of waste treatment where the narrative of the physical material starts in the formal sector of electronics manufacturing and consumption and travels along quasi-legal channels of e-scrap trade and traffic to reach the informal sector (often in developing countries) for its end-of-life management. Till date, the systemic interconnections between formality and informality in waste processing operations have not been analysed in the waste scholarship. Despite critically reviewing the widespread presence and preponderance of informality with its definite characteristics, the literature has largely disregarded its relationship with formality and the broader lexicon of production and exchange. This research addresses this important omission in the literature and examines the drivers of informality and myriad formal-informal associations in e-waste transfer and treatment in the changing contours of the global economy. The following research question guides the structure and argument of this thesis. Main Research Question: What drives informality in e-waste movement and management?The research follows the trajectory of the international waste stream and examines how these path(way)s are embedded in the socio-economic processes of formality and informality. It uses the qualitative field work conducted in Netherlands, Belgium and India (Delhi) in 2011 and 2012. The fieldwork covers all the stakeholders engaged directly or indirectly in the e-waste network starting with the manufacturers, consumers to the traders, collectors, dismantlers, recyclers and second-hand sellers in both formal and informal sectors as well as the state and NGOs. The production, distribution and consumption of electronics, its waste and the recovered elements are not disjoint despite their apparent dispersion across geographical and political borders. Rather it is a functionally and organizationally inter-connected network characterised by a continuum of formal-informal material transfer, socio-economic transactions and financial arrangements between different players performing diverse functions. The analytical foundation of this study is laid by the Global Production Network (GPN) approach which follows the spatial e-waste flow in the post-consumption stage and locates the role and position of the various actors engaged in the process. It deconstructs the inter-connections between the formal and the informal actors by drawing on the rich formality-informality discourse. It uses the Global Value Chain (GVC) framework to specifically interrogate the vertical and horizontal governance patterns and power imbalances between the different players and additionally employs the idea of informal social networks from the industrial clusters literature to understand the ties of family, kinship and community between them. The study also engages with the diverse (re)valuations of e-waste and the (re)creation of secondary products that are used for further consumption and production. The value generated, circulated and captured in the waste recycling stream by the participating actors is understood using the Marxian exposition of circuits of capital. The e-waste network is institutionally embedded in particular geographical settings, socio-cultural milieus and regulatory framework leading to spatially differential comprehensions and treatment of e-waste. The roles of the regulatory and civic initiatives in conditioning and configuring this network are scrutinised to deliberate on the different paradigms of its management. The research illustrates that the fluidity between formality and informality in waste processing is crucial in (re)fashioning and (re)constructing waste for further use. It suggests that commodity production, consumption, waste generation and treatment are conjoined internationally in which value is created and circulated across sectoral and geographical boundaries. In effect, it reflects on the politics and practices of waste production and management and questions the design and enforcement of state policies towards eco-friendly processing of e-waste.

Household Solid Waste Management has become problematic in urban areas especially in developing countries like Sri Lanka due to increased waste generation and financial constraints. The main objective of this research was to design an economic instrument with policy suggestions in order to address the household solid waste management problem in Dehiwala – the Mt. Lavinia Municipal Council area in Sri Lanka. In order to reduce the quantity of waste by encouraging sustainable solid waste management practices, the importance of a bag-based waste collection charge was identified. This study was undertaken using a sample of 300 households using a face-to-face questionnaire survey and a waste quantification study. The average daily household waste generation was found to be 1783.3g with daily per capita waste generation of 404.5g. The average composition of waste was; 85.6% organic, 4.9% paper, 2.8% plastic, 0.7% glass, 0.9% metal and 5.1% other waste. The determinants of daily per capita waste quantity in the regression models were; income, education level and the size of household. Waste separation practices are not at satisfactory levels. For the waste separation model; income, job percentage and the education level, frequency of waste collection, regularity of the collection and door-to-door collection were found to be the significant determinants. The linkage between awareness, attitudes and the behavioural intentions of the households regarding sustainable waste management practices were obtained by a principal component analysis. The Choice Experiment method indicated that households’ highest preferences were for “a source separated waste collection, a three times per week door-to-door waste collection with a zero monthly charge”. The average willingness to pay for an improved waste collection service was obtained using Contingent Valuation Method as Rs.9.49 per 5kg waste bag. The determinants of the willingness to pay were; income, quantity of waste, respondent’s age over 60 years, vehicle collection, once a week collection and twice a week collection. The charge level for a 5kg waste bag was determined as Rs.35.00 by considering the total cost of waste management, which was Rs.34.50. The average willingness to pay value of Rs.9.49 can be used in policy decisions in order to determine the charge level at the implementing stage and to subsidize low income households.

The disposal of nuclear waste is highly regulated and the disposal option will be dependent on the radionuclide content of the waste. The encapsulation of nuclear waste to prevent migration of radionuclides into the environment and as a safe means of long term storage and disposal can be achieved using ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and various additives such as blast furnace slag (BFS) or pulverised fly ash (PFA). Treated radioactive wastes in this manner are characterised by good thermal, chemical, physical stability and compressive strength. In addition the alkaline chemistry of concrete renders most radionuclides highly insoluble. The ultimate destination of some of these encapsulated wastes is in a Deep Geological Facility (GDF), where for many years the wastes will remain inert to their environment. In the longer-term the environmental conditions will change and the inertness of these waste forms could be affected from the seepage of water into the facility along with microbial activity. The diffusivity or leaching behaviour of cement encapsulated radioactive waste is crucial to ensure the overall safety of a storage/disposal system. The research presented in this thesis evaluates the diffusivity of strontium, caesium and cobalt when added as inactive forms to BFS:OPC and PFA:OPC formulation as their chlorides and for strontium when added as chloride and carbonate. The cylindrical cement paste samples (CPS) having diameter of 3.2 cm and height 5.3 cm were immersed in re-circulating test solutions consisting of de-ionised water, concentrated Sellafield pore water (CSPW), diluted Sellafield pore water (DSPW) and bacterial inoculated water, John Innes Soil Solution (JISS). Strontium carbonate was selected to determine the influence of a water insoluble compound on diffusivity of the cation. Freshly cured and aged BFS:OPC samples were also studied to evaluate the impact of carbonation on cation diffusivity. Chloride salts were used, as these would be benign to microorganisms, i.e. would not stimulate or support growth unlike nitrate or sulphate anions. The outcome of this study indicate that the make-up water composition affected the segregation of inherent and added cations in the cement paste samples and also both the bleed water volume and physical characteristics of the cement paste samples. Strontium when added as a soluble salt to the make-up water influenced the rate of diffusivity. Depending on the type of formulation (BFS:OPC, PFA:OPC), a direct correlation was observed between diffusivity of Sr2+ and total amount of Ca2+ present in the CPS. The rate of diffusivity and the depth of cation diffusion was significantly higher in 3% SrCl2 PFA:OPC having lower concentration of Ca2+ compared to its BFS counterpart. The concentration of the added salt to the make-up water also affected the diffusivity. The difference in the diffusivity was observed between closed and open diffusivity system. The solubility limits were not a factor in open circuit which was comparable with the pH values; contrary to the closed circuits. The concentration of cations and anions in the test solution influenced strontium and caesium diffusivity. The diffusivity of sulphate was influenced by the nature of the cation added to the make-up water. Strontium had the greatest effect on lowering the diffusion primarily due to the formation of sparingly soluble strontium sulphate. The pH values of the circulating JISS test solutions from all the contaminated cement samples were lower in comparison with control, which was comparable with viable population in the circulating system. There was no significant viable population measured in the JISS from control CPS. The JISS test solution composition retard strontium diffusivity but accelerated caesium diffusion in comparison with distilled water values, this retardation could be due to the inherent sulphate content (≈8600 ppb) of the JISS test solution. This work provides fundamental understanding of the physic-chemical factors influencing the diffusivity of cations from BFS:OPC and PFA:OPC formulations. The scheme i.e. closed circuit recirculation adopted in this research would be more fitting of the real situation i.e. stagnation followed by percolation and therefore diffusivity of ions will be greatly influenced by the test solution chemistry and composition.

The nuclear energy industry produces radioactive waste at various stages of the fuel cycle. In the United Kingdom, spent fuel is reprocessed at the Sellafield facility (formerly known as Windscale), in Cumbria on the north-west coast of England. Waste generated at the site comprises a wide range of radionuclides, including radiocarbon (14C) which, due to its long half-life (5730 years), environmental mobility and high bio-availability, is the largest contributor to collective dose commitment from the entire nuclear industry. 14C is disposed of in various forms, one of which is as highly soluble inorganic carbon within the low-level liquid radioactive effluent, via pipelines, into the Irish Sea. The discharged 14C is then rapidly incorporated into the dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) pool. This project aimed to better understand the fate of Sellafield discharges of 14C to the marine environment. Investigations of intertidal sites in the Irish Sea and West of Scotland found 14C enrichment above ambient background levels in shell material, including at the most northerly site, located 265 km north of Sellafield. Dissolved inorganic 14C is readily utilised during shell formation by calcifying organisms and mussel shell 14C activities at sites closer to Sellafield appear to be varying in response to the total Sellafield 14C discharge activity over the preceding 5 years. Due to subsequent erosion of this material, 14C is transferred to finer fractions of intertidal sediments where it is accumulating. During photosynthesis, primary producing organisms also utilise carbon derived from the DIC pool. This uptake and the trophic-level transfer of 14C within the Irish Sea and West of Scotland marine environments were examined. The 14C activities of Irish Sea DIC and biota in the east and west basins were enriched and highly variable. A general decrease in 14C activity with distance from Sellafield was observed, although, enriched activities were also found in the West of Scotland where the activities were more homogenous. Organic sediments were significantly less enhanced than associated benthic organisms. This could be due to rapid scavenging of labile, 14C-enriched organic material by organisms and mixing to depth with older, 14C depleted material. Commercially important species were 14C enriched; however, the radiation dose from their consumption is extremely low and radiologically insignificant. To evaluate the transfer of 14C to top predators in the UK marine environment, 14C activities were examined in stranded marine mammals. All Irish Sea samples were enriched, as were most from the West of Scotland, although the 14C activities were lower. In demonstrating transfer of enriched 14C to apex predators for the first time, this study also showed that marine mammal activities correlated significantly with distance from Sellafield and Sellafield 14C discharge activities for 24 months prior to stranding. These measurements also provided some insight into harbour porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) ecology, indicating high foraging fidelity and suggesting the animals stranded on the West of Scotland did not forage in the Irish Sea. The studies in this thesis examined the dispersion of Sellafield-derived 14C to both near- and far-field sites and the subsequent ecosystem uptake and trophic transfer at these locations. However, it is important to attempt to understand the fate of 14C discharges beyond the limitations and scope of analytical investigations. To do so, the first spatial-temporal ecosystem model to predict the ecological fate of Sellafield-derived 14C was developed. The observed trends in 14C activities between different species were predicted by the model which illustrated the integration of 14C in species at higher trophic levels through time.

In this thesis, I explore the collective excrement apparatus of Kampala, or the “shitscape”. I consider the diverse ways that the city’s inhabitants utilise different materials to manage their daily defecation, from flush toilets and latrines to plastic bags, septic tanks, and wastewater channels. In doing so, I unravel the historical and contemporary construction of toileting as a critical component of the modern city in the global south, and the everyday role of excrement in the inclusion and exclusion of Kampala’s inhabitants. The shitscape therefore invites a discussion of how the city’s sanitation infrastructures are thought about and implemented in a way that both reflects and reinforces the socio-economic disparities of its residents. The thesis begins with an historical analysis of how the city was shaped by colonialism and how this affects the contemporary shitscape in terms of ideas about urbanity, modernity, and hygiene, and then analyses how the material and symbolic groundwork of the colonial period is extended into the planning and living of today’s city. Tracing the city’s main wastewater channel through affluent areas and informal settlements of central Kampala, I use ethnographic and qualitative methods to understand the everyday toileting materialities and performances, and its role in the ways in which the city is read, perceived, and lived by its inhabitants. The study’s primary theoretical contribution is to contribute to Lefebvre’s theories about the production of urban space by bringing it into conversation with postcolonial and feminist literatures that knit together bodily function and material infrastructure. This everyday look at the how the city’s shitscape operates ultimately offers ways to challenge prevailing notions of urbanity, and prompts thinking about alternative possibilities for how city life is conceptualised.

Unsustainable urbanization in Ghana has resulted in poor environmental conditions in urban settlements in the country. Solid waste disposal, in particular, has become a daunting task for the municipal authorities who seem to lack the capacity to tackle the mounting waste situation. This study investigates the nature of the solid waste problem in two Ghanaian cities, Accra and Sekondi-Takoradi. It describes the waste situation in the study areas and identifies the causes of the problem from the perspective of key stakeholders in the waste sector. The delivery of solid waste collection services across different socio-economic groups of the urban population and the siting of waste disposal facilities are also examined in relation to the concepts of social justice and environmental justice respectively. For the empirical investigation, a mixed methodology was used which combined questionnaire and interview data from stakeholders in the waste sector, together with documentary and observational data, to examine the issue of solid waste disposal in the two study sites. The key issues identified by the study include: that Ghanaian cities are experiencing worsening solid waste situations but the municipal governments lack the capacities in terms of financial, logistical and human resources to cope with the situation; that while several causes of the urban waste crisis can be identified, the lack of political commitment to urban environmental management is the root cause of the worsening solid waste situation in Ghanaian cities; and that social and environmental injustices are being perpetuated against the poor in the delivery of waste collection services and the siting of waste disposal facilities in Ghanaian cities. Based on these findings, it has been argued that the solution to the worsening environmental conditions in Ghanaian cities lies in the prioritization of urban environmental management and commitment of Ghana’s political leadership to urban settlement development and management.

Thesis (M.Dev)--University of Limpopo, 2005. / The aim of this study was to investigate and quantify the status of household sanitation level in the Bushbuckridge Local Municipality. The study was conducted at Mthuzuni Settlement in the Bushbuckridge Local Municipality. A probability sampling technique was employed in the study. Simple random sampling was used to sample respondents from each of the 50 households. A questionnaire was used to collect data from the 50 sampled respondents. An interview schedule was also used to collect data from the ward councillor.The findings revealed that there are inadequate sanitation facilities in the Mthuzini settlement. The significance of this study is that it can be used to educate the community about good sanitation practices. It can also serve to inform the Bushbuckridge Local Municipality to speed-up provision of basic household sanitation facilities to needy communities.